Editing Miniature (illuminated manuscript) (section)

===Europe===
====8th&ndash;12th centuries====
[[File:KellsFol292rIncipJohn.jpg|thumb|220px|This lavishly decorated text that opens the [[Gospel of John]] in the [[Book of Kells]], early 9th century, shows the [[Insular art|Insular]] style of illumination: decorative and not illustrative.]]

In the native schools of illumination of Western Europe, decoration only was the leading motive. In the manuscripts of the [[Merovingian]] period, in the school which connected [[Francia|Frankland]] and northern Italy, and which is known as [[Lombards|Lombardic]] or Franco-Lombardic, in the manuscripts of [[Spain]], in the productions of the [[Insular art]] of the [[British Isles]], figure-drawing was scarcely known, serving rather as a feature of decoration than as a representation of the human form.<ref name=EB1911/>

The [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon]] school, developed especially at [[Canterbury]] and [[Winchester]], which probably derived its characteristic free-hand drawing from classical Roman models, scarcely influenced by the Byzantine element. The highest qualities of the miniatures of the 10th and 11th century of this school lie in fine outline drawing, which had a lasting influence on the English miniature of the later centuries. But the southern Anglo-Saxon school rather stands apart from the general line of development of the western medieval miniature.<ref name=EB1911/>

Under the [[Carolingian]] monarchs there developed a school of painting derived from classical models, chiefly of the Byzantine type. In this school, which owed its origin to the encouragement of [[Charlemagne]], it is seen that the miniature appears in two forms. First, there is the truly conventional miniature following the Byzantine model, the subjects being generally the portraits of the [[Four Evangelists]], or portraits of the emperors themselves: the figures formal; the pages brilliantly colored and gilded, generally set in architectural surroundings of a fixed type, and devoid of landscape in the real sense of the word. Accompanied as it was with profuse decoration in border and initial, it set the pattern for the later Continental schools of the West. On the other hand, there is also the miniature in which there is an attempt at illustration, as, for example, the depicting of scenes from the [[Bible]]. Here there is more freedom; and we trace the classical style which copies Roman, as distinguished from Byzantine, models.<ref name=EB1911/> 

[[File:Meister der Reichenauer Schule 003.jpg|thumb|[[Gospels of Otto III]], Reichenau Abbey (around 1000), Luke the Evangelist]]
Under the subsequent [[Ottonian dynasty|Ottonian monarchs]] in [[East Francia]], the early Ottonian manuscripts are still clearly in the Carolingian tradition. Like these, they are based on a programmatic reference to the ancient tradition, so that this era is referred to as the ''[[Ottonian Renaissance]]'', based on the ''[[Carolingian Renaissance]]''. Nevertheless, ancient naturalism and illusionism, which had been adapted in some manuscripts during the Carolingian period, were now completely sacrificed to a stylized formal language. The most important links between Carolingian and Ottonian illumination were the [[Abbey of St. Gall]], the [[Princely Abbey of Fulda|Abbey of Fulda]] ([[Codex Wittekindeus]]) and the [[Princely Abbey of Corvey|Abbey of Corvey]]. There no longer seems to have been a court school like in Carolingian times. The most important art centers at the time of [[Otto the Great]] were [[History of Cologne|Cologne]], where a distinctive painterly style with Byzantine influence developed<ref>Peter Bloch, Hermann Schnitzler: ''Die ottonische Kölner Malschule'' (The Ottonian Cologne painting school), 2 volumes. L. Schwann, Düsseldorf 1967–1970.</ref> (for example with [[Hitda Codex]]), [[History of Trier|Trier]], [[History of Regensburg|Regensburg]] and, above all, [[Reichenau Abbey]] (for example with [[Gero Codex]], [[Petershausen Sacramentary]], [[Codex Egberti]] or [[Egbert Psalter]]). In addition, scriptoria were active in [[History of Mainz|Mainz]], [[Prüm Abbey]], the [[Abbey of Echternach]] (with the [[Golden Gospels of Henry III]]) and elsewhere. In the 11th century, the scriptoria of [[Tegernsee Abbey]], [[Niederaltaich Abbey]], [[Weihenstephan Abbey|Freising]] and [[History of Salzburg|Salzburg]] emerged in the Bavarian-Austrian region. From around 990 to 1020, Ottonian illumination reached its peak with the works of the Liuthar group, which were probably created in the Reichenau Island monasteries, including the [[Liuthar Gospels]], the [[Gospels of Otto III]], the [[Pericopes of Henry II]] and the [[Bamberg Apocalypse]]. Throughout the Ottonian period, the image of the evangelist was a central motif; the image of the ruler, which served to represent the clients' self-portrayal - often in the form of a dedication image - and the [[Majestas Domini]] stand out. The dominant stylistic elements are symmetrical, flat representations with a monumental character. Many of the Ottonian illustrations are full-page, sometimes divided into two panels. Large, overly long and expressive figures with ecstatic, suggestive sign language and the courage to use empty, monochrome surfaces - mostly gold backgrounds - characterize the style of these manuscripts, which strongly influenced [[Expressionism]] in the 20th century. The illustrations completely lack spatial depth.<ref>Kunibert Bering: ''Kunst des frühen Mittelalters'' (Art of the Early Middle Ages), Volume 2, Reclam, Stuttgart 2002; Hermann Fillitz: ''Propyläen-Kunstgeschichte'' (Propylaea art history), Volume 5: ''The Middle Ages 1''. Propyläen-Verlag, Berlin 1969; Hans Jantzen: ''Ottonische Kunst'' (Ottonian art), 2nd expanded and commented edition. Reimer, Berlin 2002; Henry Mayr-Harting: ''Ottonische Buchmalerei. Liturgische Kunst im Reich der Kaiser, Bischöfe und Äbte'' (Ottonian illumination. Liturgical art in the realm of emperors, bishops and abbots''. Belser, Stuttgart 1991</ref>

[[File:Meister des Benedictionale des Heiligen Aethelwold 001.jpg|thumb|200px|Miniature of the [[baptism]] of [[Christ]] from the [[Benedictional of St. Æthelwold]], 10th century, is an example of the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] school.]]

The influence which the Carolingian school exercised on the miniatures of the southern Anglo-Saxon artists shows itself in the extended use of body-color and in the more elaborate employment of gold in the decoration. Such a manuscript as the [[Benedictional of St. Æthelwold]], [[bishop of Winchester]], 963 to 984, with its series of miniatures drawn in the native style but painted in opaque pigments, exhibits the influence of the foreign art. But the actual drawing remained essentially national, marked by its own treatment of the human figure and by the disposition of the drapery with fluttering folds. The style was refined, tending to exaggeration and disproportion of the limbs. With the [[Norman Conquest]] this remarkable native school died.<ref name=EB1911/>

With the awakening of art in the 12th century the decoration of manuscripts received a powerful impulse. The artists of the time excelled in the border and the initial, but in the miniature also there was vigorous drawing, with bold sweeping lines and careful study of the draperies. The artists grew more practiced in figure-drawing, and while there was still the tendency to repeat the same subjects in the same conventional manner, individual effort produced in this century many miniatures of a very noble character.<ref name=EB1911/>

The Norman Conquest had brought England directly within the fold of Continental art; and now began that grouping of the French and the English and the [[Flanders|Flemish]] schools, which, fostered by growing intercourse and moved by common impulses, resulted in the magnificent productions of the illuminators of north-western Europe from the latter part of the 12th century onwards.<ref name=EB1911/>

But of natural landscape there is nothing, unless rocks and trees of a stereotyped character can be so regarded. Hence the background of the miniature of the 12th and immediately succeeding centuries became the field for decoration to throw into stronger relief the figures in the scene. And thus arose the practice of filling in the entire space with a sheet of gold, often burnished: a brilliant method of ornament which we have already seen practiced in the Byzantine school. We have also to notice the conventional treatment of the sacred figures, which continue henceforward, from a sense of veneration, to be clad in the traditional robes of the early centuries, while the other figures of the scene wear the ordinary dress of the period.<ref name=EB1911/>

====13th&ndash;15th centuries====
[[File:Melusinediscovered.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Miniature ''Roman de Mélusine'' [[Guillebert de Mets]], 1410.]]
Entering the 13th century, we reach the period when the miniature may be said to justify the modern false etymology which has connected the title with minuteness. The broad, bold style of the 12th century gives place to the precise and minute. Books in general exchanged their form from the large [[Book size|folio]] to the [[octavo]] and smaller sizes. There was a greater demand for books; and [[vellum]] was limited in quantity and had to go further. Handwriting grew smaller and lost the roundness of the 12th century. Contractions and abbreviations in the texts largely increased in number. Everywhere there is an effort to save space. And so with the miniature. Figures were small, with delicate strokes in the features and with neat slim bodies and limbs. The backgrounds blaze with color and burnished gold; and delicate diaper patterns of alternate gold and color abound. Frequently, and especially in English manuscripts, the drawings are merely tinted or washed with transparent colors. In this century, too, the miniature invades the initial. Whereas in the earlier periods bold flowering scrolls are the fashion, now a little scene is introduced into the blank spaces of the letter.<ref name=EB1911/>

To compare the work of the three schools, the drawing of the English miniature, at its best, is perhaps the most graceful; the French is the neatest and the most accurate; the Flemish, including that of western Germany, is less refined and in harder and stronger lines. As to colors, the English artist affects rather lighter tints than those of the other schools: a partiality is to be observed for light green, for grey-blue, and for lake. The French artist loved deeper shades, especially ultramarine. The Fleming and the German painted, as a rule, in less pure colors and inclined to heaviness. A noticeable feature in French manuscripts is the red or copper-hued gold used in their illuminations, in strong contrast to the paler metal of England and the Low Countries.<ref name=EB1911/>
[[File:Breviary of Chertsey Abbey (folio 6r).jpg|thumb|200px|A capital S contains a miniature of [[Moses]] being found by the [[Pharaoh]]'s daughter. From the Breviary of Chertsey Abbey, 14th century.]]
[[File:Breviarium Grimani - February.jpg|thumb|200px|The month February. From the [[Grimani Breviary]], a key work in the late history of [[Flanders|Flemish]] illuminated manuscripts,({{circa|1515}}-1520).]]
It is remarkable how the art of the miniature throughout the 13th century maintains its high quality both in drawing and color without any very striking change. Throughout the century the [[Bible]] and the [[Psalter]] were in favor; and naturally the same subjects and the same scenes ran through the period and were repeated by artist after artist; and the very character of those sacred books would tend to restrain innovation. But towards the close of the period such secular works as the romances were growing in popularity, and afforded a wider field for the invention of the illustrating artist. Therefore, with the opening of the 14th century a palpable change of style supervenes. We pass to more flowing lines; not to the bold sweeping strokes and curves of the 12th century, but to a graceful, delicate, yielding style which produced the beautiful swaying figures of the period. In fact the miniature now begins to free itself from the role of an integral member of the decorative scheme of illumination and to develop into the picture, depending on its own artistic merit for the position it is to hold in the future. This is shown by the more prominent place that the miniature now assumes, and by its growing independence of the decorative border and initial.<ref name=EB1911/>

But, at the same time, while the miniature of the 14th century thus strives to dissociate itself from the rest of the illuminated details of the manuscript, within itself it flourishes in decoration. Besides the greater elasticity of the figuredrawing, there is a parallel development in the designs of the backgrounds. The diapers become more elaborate and more brilliant; the beauty of the burnished gold is enhanced by the stippled patterns which are frequently worked upon it; the gothic canopies and other architectural features which it became the practice to introduce naturally followed the development of the architecture of the period. In a word, the great expansion of artistic sentiment in decoration of the best type, which is so prominent in the higher work of the 14th century, is equally conspicuous in the illuminated miniature.<ref name=EB1911/>

In the early part of the century, English drawing is very graceful, the figures bending with a waving movement which, if they were not so simple, would be an affectation. Both in the outline specimens, washed with transparent color, and in the fully. painted examples, the best English work of this time is unsurpassed. French art still maintains its neat precision, the colors more vivid than those of England and the faces delicately indicated without much modelling. The productions of the Low Countries, still keeping to the heavier style of drawing, appear coarse beside the works of the other schools. Nor does German miniature art of this period hold a high position, being generally mechanical and of a rustic character. As time advances the French miniature almost monopolizes the field, excelling in brilliancy of coloring, but losing much of its purity of drawing although the general standard still remains high. The English school gradually retrogrades and, owing no doubt to political causes and to the wars with France, appears to have produced no work of much value. It is only towards the end of the 14th century that there is a revival.<ref name=EB1911/>

This revival has been attributed to a connection with the flourishing school of [[Prague]], a school which in the scheme of coloring suggests a southern influence following on the marriage of [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] with [[Anne of Bohemia]] in 1382. The new style of English miniature painting is distinguished by richness of color, and by the careful modelling of the faces, which compares favorably with the slighter treatment by the contemporary French artists. Similar attention to the features also marks the northern Flemish or Dutch school at this period and in the early 15th century; and it may therefore be regarded as an attribute of Germanic art as distinguished from the French style.<ref name=EB1911/>
[[File:Angers Book of Hours (folio 13r).jpg|thumb|200px|The prayer ''obsecro te'' illustrated by a miniature of the [[pietà]], from the [[Book of Hours]] of [[Angers]], c. 1470s.]]
The promise of the new development in English miniature painting, however, was not to be fulfilled. In the first quarter of the 15th century, examples of great merit were produced, but at a standstill in drawing and fettered by medieval convention. The native art practically came to a close about the middle of the century, just when the better appreciation of nature was breaking down the old conventional representation of landscape in European art, and was transforming the miniature into the modern picture. Whatever miniature painting was to be produced in England after that time was to be the work of foreign artists or of artists imitating a foreign style. The condition of the country during the [[Wars of the Roses]] sufficiently accounts for the abandonment of art. Thus the history of the miniature in the 15th century must be sought in the manuscripts of the Continental schools.<ref name=EB1911/>

First we have to consider northern France and the Low Countries. As it passes out of the 14th and enters the 15th century, the miniature of both schools begins to exhibit greater freedom in composition; and there is a further tendency to aim rather at general effect by the coloring than neatness in drawing. This was encouraged by the wider field opened to the miniaturist. Books of all kinds were illustrated, and sacred books, [[Bible]]s and [[Psalter]]s and [[liturgical book]]s, were no longer the chief, if not the only, manuscripts which were illuminated. And yet there was one class of manuscript which came into the greatest prominence and which was at the same time liturgical. This was the ''Horae'', or [[Book of Hours]], devotional books for individual use, which were multiplied in vast numbers and contained some of the finest work of the miniaturists. The decoration of these little volumes escaped in great measure from the conventional restraints which their religious character might have imposed. Furthermore, the demand for illuminated manuscripts had by this time established a regular trade; and their production was not confined, as formerly, to the cloister.<ref name=EB1911/> Notable secular illuminated manuscript artists include [[Master Honoré]] of the Parisian school.
[[File:Enkhuisen Book of Hours (folio 39v).jpg|thumb|200px|Miniature of [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]] and [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] discovering [[Jesus]] among the doctors. From the [[Enkhuizen]] [[Book of Hours]], late 15th century.]]
[[File:Stift Rein - Bibliothek, Wolfgang-Missale, Initiale.jpg|thumb|220px|Miniature from the Missale Cisterciense (Wolfgang Missale) in the [[Rein Abbey, Austria#Library|Rein Abbey Library]] from [[Austria]], 1493, well after printed books were available.]]
Early in the century the old conventional treatment of landscape still held its own; nor did the diapered and gilded background pass out of use. Indeed, in some of the finest French specimens of the time the diapered patterns are more brilliant than ever. But natural scenery in the second quarter of the century asserts itself more decidedly, although with faults in perspective. It was not until another generation had arisen that there was a true appreciation of the horizon and of atmospheric effect.<ref name=EB1911/>

The miniatures of the French and Flemish schools run fairly parallel for a time, but after the middle of the century national characteristics become more marked and divergent. The French miniature began to deteriorate, though some very fine examples were produced by the more gifted artists of the school. The figure-drawing was more careless, and the painting tended to hardness without depth, which the artist endeavoured to relieve by an excess of gilt shading.<ref name=EB1911/>

The Flemish school in the latter part of the 15th century attained to its highest excellence. The Flemish miniature affected extreme softness and depth of color; also an ever-increasing carefulness in the treatment of details, of the draperies, of the expression of the features: the Flemish type of the Virgin's face, for example, with its full, high forehead, can never be mistaken. In the best Flemish miniatures of the period the artist succeeds in presenting a wonderful softness and glow of color; nor did the high standard cease with the 15th century, for many excellent specimens still remain to attest the favor in which it was held for a few decades longer.<ref name=EB1911/>

In the foregoing remarks what has been said in regard to the careful treatment of details applies still more to the miniatures executed in [[grisaille]], in which the absence of color invited an even stronger accentuation of that treatment. This is perhaps most observable in the grisaille miniatures of northern [[Flanders]], which often suggest, particularly in the strong angular lines of the draperies, a connection with the art of the wood engraver.<ref name=EB1911/>