Editing Participle (section)

==Indo-European languages==

===Germanic languages===

====Early English====
In [[Old English]], past participles of [[Germanic strong verb]]s were marked with a ''ge-'' prefix, a West Germanic feature still found in most strong and weak past participles in Dutch and German today, and often by a vowel change in the stem. Those of weak verbs were marked by the ending ''-d'', with or without an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowel before it. Modern English past participles derive from these forms (although the ''ge-'' prefix, which became ''y-'' in Middle English, has now been lost — except in some rare dialects such as the [[Dorset dialect]], where it takes the form of ''a-'').

Old English present participles were marked with an ending in ''-ende'' (or ''-iende'' for verbs whose infinitives ended in ''-ian'').

====Middle English====
In [[Middle English]], the form of the present participle varied across regions: ''-ende'' (southwest, southeast, [[English Midlands|Midlands]]), ''-inde'' (southwest, southeast), ''-and'' (north), ''-inge'' (southeast). The last is the one that became standard, falling together with the suffix ''-ing'' used to form [[verbal noun]]s. See [[-ing#Etymology|''-ing'' (etymology)]].

====Modern English====
{{anchor|Modern English}}[[Modern English]] includes two traditional terms for its participles:<ref>Quirk et al., 3.9</ref>
* The ''present participle'', also sometimes called the ''[[active voice|active]]'', ''[[imperfect]]'', or ''[[progressive aspect|progressive]]'' participle, takes the ending ''-ing'', for example ''doing'', ''seeing'', ''working'', ''running'', ''breaking'', ''understanding''. It is identical in form to the [[verbal noun]] and [[gerund]] (see below). The term ''present participle'' is sometimes used to include the gerund;<ref>For example, Quirk et al., 4.12.</ref> the term "gerund–participle" is also used to indicate the verb form.
* The ''past participle'', also sometimes called the ''[[passive voice|passive]]'' or ''[[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]'' participle, is identical to the [[simple past|past tense]] form (ending in ''-ed'') in the case of regular verbs, for example "loaded", "boiled", "mounted", but takes various forms in the case of [[English irregular verbs|irregular verbs]], such as ''done'', ''sung'', ''written'', ''broken'', ''understood'', ''put'', ''gone'', etc.

In addition, various compound participles can be formed, such as ''having done'', ''being done'', ''having been doing'', ''having been done''.<ref>Quirk et al., 3.15.</ref>

Details of participle formation can be found under [[English verbs]] and [[List of English irregular verbs]].

Participles, or participial phrases (clauses) formed from them, are used as follows:

1. As an adjective used in an attributive sense:
* A '''broken''' window (i.e., one that has been broken)
* An '''interesting''' book (i.e., one that interests)
* An '''exciting''' adventure (i.e., one that excites)
* The '''attached''' files (i.e., those that are attached)
* A '''fallen''' tree (i.e., one that has fallen)
* Our '''fallen''' comrades (i.e., those who have fallen)

Additionally, participles that express an adjectivally attributive meaning can be affixed to form adverbs, such as ''interestingly'' and ''excitedly''.

2. In postpositive phrases. These are often regarded as functioning as a [[reduced relative clause]]:
* A window '''broken''' by the wind (A window that was '''broken''' by the wind).
* A woman '''wearing''' a red hat (A woman who was '''wearing''' a red hat).
* The man '''standing''' over there is my uncle (The man who is '''standing''' over there is my uncle).
* We are a people '''clamoring''' for freedom (We are a people who are '''clamoring''' for freedom).

3. In an [[adverbial phrase]]. In the following, the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] is understood to be the same as that of the main clause:
* '''Reviewing''' her bank statement, Ann started to cry (While she reviewed her bank statement, Ann started to cry).
* '''Having reviewed''' the bank statement, Ann started to cry (After she reviewed her bank statement, Ann started to cry).
* He shot the man, '''killing''' him (He shot the man and killed him).
* '''Maintained''' properly, wooden buildings can last for centuries (If/when they are maintained properly, wooden buildings can last for centuries).

With a different subject, placed before the participle:
* He and I '''having reconciled''' our differences, the project then proceeded smoothly (Because/after he and I had reconciled our differences, the project proceeded smoothly). (This is known as the nominative absolute construction.)

More generally as a clause or sentence modifier: 
* Broadly '''speaking''', the project was successful.

4. Participles are used to form [[periphrastic]] verb tenses:

The present participle forms the [[progressive aspect|progressive]] aspect with the auxiliary verb ''be'':

* Jim was '''sleeping'''.

The past participle forms the [[Perfect (grammar)|perfect]] aspect with the auxiliary verb ''have'':

* The chicken has '''eaten'''.

5. The past participle is used to form [[English passive voice|passive voice]]: 
* The chicken was '''eaten'''.
Such passive participles can appear in an adjectival phrase: 
*The chicken '''eaten''' by the children was contaminated. 
Adverbially: 
*'''Eaten''' in this manner, the chicken presents no problem.
And in a nominative absolute construction, with a subject: 
*The chicken '''eaten''', we returned home.

Note that a past participle that complements a [[stative verb]] (e.g., "The files that ''are attached'' or "Our comrades who ''have fallen''") becomes a passive participle within a [[passive voice]] construct.

6. As a gerund. The [[gerund]] is traditionally regarded as distinct from the present participle. A gerund can function transitively (e.g., "I like ''eating ice cream''") or intransitively (e.g., "I like ''swimming''"). In both instances, a gerund functions nominatively rather than adjectivally or adverbially—whether as an object (e.g., "I like ''sleeping''") or as a subject (e.g., "''Sleeping'' is not allowed"). Although ''gerunds'' and ''present participles'' are morphologically identical, their grammatical functions differ substantially.

Sometimes their morphological similarity can create contextual ambiguity, as [[Noam Chomsky]] pointed out in his well-known example:<ref>Noam Chomsky, ''[[Aspects of the Theory of Syntax]]'' (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1965), 21.</ref>
*'''Flying''' planes can be dangerous.

When the meaning is "The practice of flying a plane is dangerous," ''flying'' functions as a gerund; when the danger concerns "Planes that fly" or "Planes when they are flying" (i.e., in contrast to ''grounded planes''), ''flying'' is being used adjectivally as a participle. For more on the distinctions between these uses of the ''-ing'' verb form, see [[-ing#Uses|''-ing'': uses]].

For more details on uses of participles and other parts of verbs in English, see [[Uses of English verb forms]], including the sections on the [[Uses of English verb forms#Present participle|present participle]] and [[Uses of English verb forms#Past participle|past participle]].

The following table summarises some of the uses of participles in English:

{| class="wikitable"
|+Active participle usage versus passive participle usage
!Example
!Tense name
!Lexical category      
!Voice
|-
|The '''baked''' bread
|n/a
|past participle ([[prepositive]]); adjectival
|Passive
|-
|Bread '''baked''' daily
|n/a
|past participle ([[Postpositive adjective|postpositive]]); adjectival
|Passive
|-
|The '''acting''' president
|n/a
|present participle (prepositive); adjectival
|Active
|-
|The time '''remaining''' 
|n/a
|present participle (postpositive); adjectival
|Active
|-
|You look '''lost'''
|present simple
|past participle; adjectival
|Passive
|-
|You look '''charming'''
|present simple
|present participle; adjectival
|Active
|-
|You are '''lost'''
|present simple
|past participle; adjectival
|Passive
|-
|You are '''losing'''
|present continuous
|present participle; aspectual
|Active
|-
|He has '''finished'''
|present perfect
|past participle; aspectual
|Active
|-
|He has '''been''' finished
|present perfect
|past participle; aspectual
|Passive
|-
|He has been '''finished'''
|present perfect
|past participle; adjectival
|Passive
|-
|He has been '''finishing'''  
|present perfect continuous
|present participle; aspectual
|Active
|-
|She had '''been''' run
|past perfect 
|past participle; aspectual
|Passive
|-
|She had been '''run''' 
|past perfect 
|past participle; aspectual
|Passive
|-
|She had been '''running'''
|past perfect continuous
|present participle; aspectual
|Active
|-
|She had been running '''ragged'''
|past perfect continuous
|past participle; adverbial
|Passive
|-
|She had been running '''unwillingly'''
|past perfect continuous
|[[suffix]]ed present participle; adverbial
|Passive
|-

|}

==== Scandinavian languages ====
In all of the [[North Germanic languages|Scandinavian languages]] the past participle has to agree with the noun to some degree. All of the Scandinavian languages have mandatory agreement with the noun in number. [[Nynorsk]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] have mandatory agreement in both number and gender. [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Faroese language|Faroese]] have agreement in number, gender and case. The verb form used for the perfect (or "[[supine]]") aspect is generally identical to the nominative neuter singular form of the past participle for all verbs. For the present participle there is no agreement.

Examples in [[Nynorsk]]:
* '''Sjølvkøyrande''' bilar kan vere farlege. (English: '''self-driving''' ''cars can be dangerous)''
* Kyllingen vart '''eten''' (English: The chicken was '''eaten''')
* Dyret vart '''ete''' (English: The deer was '''eaten''')
The participles are marked in bold. The first example involves a present participle and the two latter examples involves a past participle. All present participles end with an -ande suffix.

In Norwegian, the present participle may be used to form adjectives or adverbs denoting the possibility or convenience of performing the action prescribed by the verb. For example:
* Var maten '''etande'''? (English: Was the food '''edible'''?) (or rather: Was the food '''any good'''?)
* Utan servo vert bilen fort '''ukøyrande'''. (English: Without power steering, the car soon becomes '''impossible to drive'''.) (Lit: un-drivable)
This construction is allowed in Nynorsk, but not in [[Bokmål]], where suffixes like ''-elig'' or ''-bar'' are used instead.

===Latin and Romance languages===

====Latin====
{{main article|Latin syntax#Participles|Latin conjugation#Participles|Latin syntax#The gerundive}}

[[Latin]] grammar was studied in Europe for hundreds of years, especially the handbook written by the 4th-century teacher [[Aelius Donatus]], and it is from Latin that the name and concept of the participle derives. According to Donatus there are four participles in Latin, as follows:<ref>Donatus, ''Ars Minor: de participio''.</ref>

* '''present''' participle: present stem + ''-ns'' (gen. ''-ntis''); e.g. ''legēns'' (plural ''legentēs'') "(while) reading"
* '''perfect''' participle: [[Latin conjugation#Supine|supine]] stem + ''-us'', ''-a'', ''-um''; e.g. ''lēctus'' "read (by someone)"
* '''future''' participle: supine stem + ''-ūrus'', ''-ūra'', ''-ūrum''; e.g. ''lēctūrus'' "going to read", "due to read"
* '''gerundive''' (sometimes<ref>cf. Wheelock, pp. 106ff and 112 note; Allen & Greenough, p. 315.</ref> considered the future passive participle): e.g. ''legendus'' "due to be read", "necessary to be read"

However, many modern Latin grammars treat the gerundive as a separate part of speech.<ref>e.g. Kennedy, Gildersleeve & Lodge, etc.</ref>

The perfect participle is usually [[Passive voice|passive]] in meaning, and thus mainly formed from [[Transitive verb|transitive]] verbs, for example ''frāctus'' "broken", ''missus'' "sent (by someone)". However, certain verbs (called [[deponent verb]]s) have a perfect participle in an [[Active verb|active]] sense, e.g. ''profectus'' "having set out", ''hortātus'' "having encouraged", etc. The present and future participles are always active, the gerundive usually passive.

Because a participle is an adjective as well as a verb, just like any other Latin adjective its ending changes according to the noun it describes. So when the noun is masculine, the participle must be masculine; when the noun is in the [[accusative case|accusative]] (object) case, the participle is also in the accusative case; when the noun has plural endings, the participle also has plural endings. Thus a simple participle such as ''frāctus'' "broken" can change to ''frācta'', ''frāctum'', ''frāctī'', ''frāctō'' and so on, according to its gender, number, and case.

A participle can have a descriptive meaning like an adjective, or a more dynamic meaning like a verb. Thus in the following sentence the participle ''strīctō'' "drawn" is better taken as describing an action ("he drew his sword" or "after drawing his sword") rather than as describing the sword ("with a drawn sword"):

*'''''Strīctō''' gladiō ad '''dormientem''' Lucrētiam vēnit.''<ref>Livy, 1.58.2</ref><br />"With '''drawn''' sword he came to the '''sleeping''' Lucretia."

The dynamic, verbal meaning is more common, and Latin often uses a participle where English might use a simple verb.

The present participle often describes the circumstances attending the main verb. A typical example is:
*''Balbus ad mē vēnit '''currēns'''''.<ref>Cicero, ''ad Atticum'' 9.2a.3.</ref><br />"Balbus came to me '''running'''."

Both the future and the perfect participle (but not the present participle) can be used with various tenses of the verb ''esse'' "to be" to make a compound tense such as the future-in-the-past or the perfect passive:
*''Eō diē Rōmam '''ventūrus erat'''.''<ref>Cicero, ''pro Milone'' 28.</ref><br />"On that day '''he was going to return''' to Rome."
*'''''Occīsus est''' ā Thēbānīs.''<ref>Nepos, ''Lysander'' 3.4.</ref><br />"'''He was killed''' by the Thebans."

The perfect and future participles can also be used, with or without the verb ''esse'' "to be", in indirect speech clauses:
*''(Dīxit eōs) locum facile '''inventūrōs''' (esse).''<ref>Nepos, ''Hannibal'' 12.3.</ref><br />"He said that they were easily '''going to find''' the place / He said that they '''would find''' the place easily."

For uses of the gerundive, see [[Latin syntax#The gerundive]].

====French====
There are two basic participles:
*'''Present active participle''': formed by dropping the ''-ons'' of the ''nous'' form of the present tense of a verb (except with ''être'' and ''avoir'') and then adding ''ant'': ''marchant'' "walking", ''étant'' "being", ''ayant'' "having".
*'''Past participle''': formation varies according to verb group: ''vendu'' "sold", ''mis'' "placed", ''marché'' "walked", ''été'' "been", and ''fait'' "done". The sense of the past participle is passive as an adjective and in most verbal constructions with ''être'', but active in verbal constructions with ''avoir'', in reflexive constructions, and with some intransitive verbs.<ref>Maurice Grevisse, ''[[Le Bon Usage]]'', 10th edition, § 776.</ref>

Compound participles are possible:
*'''Present perfect participle''': ''ayant appelé'' "having called", ''étant mort'' "being dead"
*'''Passive perfect participle''': ''étant vendu'' "being sold, having been sold"

Usage:
*'''Present participles''' are used as qualifiers as in "un insecte '''volant'''" (a flying insect) and in some other contexts. They are never used to form tenses.
*'''Past participles''' are used as qualifiers for nouns: "la table '''cassée'''" (the broken table); to form compound tenses such as the perfect "Vous avez '''dit'''" (you have said) and to form the passive voice: "il a été '''tué'''" (he/it has been killed).

====Spanish====
In Spanish, the so-called present or active participle (''participio activo'' or ''participio de presente'') of a verb is traditionally formed with one of the suffixes ''-ante, -ente'' or ''-iente'', but modern grammar does not consider it a true participle, as such forms usually have the meaning of simple adjectives or nouns: e.g. ''amante'' "loving" or "lover", ''viviente'' "living" or "live".



The past participle (''participio pasado'' or ''participio pasivo'') is regularly formed with one of the suffixes ''-ado'' or ''-ido (-ado'' for verbs ending in "-ar" and ''-ido'' for verbs ending in "-er" or "-ir"; but some verbs have an irregular form ending in ''-to'' (e.g. ''escrito, visto, puesto''), or ''-cho'' (e.g. ''dicho, hecho'').<ref>{{Cite web|title=Spanish Perfect Tenses|url=https://www.enforex.com/language/spanish-perfect-tenses.html|website=Enforex}}</ref> The past participle is used generally as an adjective referring to a finished action, in which case its ending changes according to gender and number. At other times is used to form compound tenses: the present perfect, past perfect (sometimes referred to as the ''pluscuamperfecto''), and the future perfect, in which case it is indeclinable. Some examples:

As an adjective (note how "escritas" agrees in gender with the noun, "las cartas"):
*''las cartas escritas'' "the written letters"

To form compound tenses:
*''Ha escrito una carta.'' "She (he, it) has written a letter."
*''Había escrito una carta.'' "She (he, it) had written a letter."
*''Habrá escrito una carta.'' "She (he, it) will have written a letter."

===Hellenic languages===

====Ancient Greek====
{{Main article|Participle (Ancient Greek)}}
The [[Ancient Greek]] participle shares in the properties of adjectives and verbs. Like an adjective, it changes form for [[grammatical gender|gender]], [[grammatical case|case]], and [[grammatical number|number]]. Like a verb, it has [[grammatical tense|tense]] and [[voice (grammar)|voice]], is modified by [[adverb]]s, and can take [[verb argument]]s, including an [[object (grammar)|object]].<ref>{{Smyth|2039}}</ref> Participles are quite numerous in Ancient Greek: a non-defective verb has as many as ten participles.

There is a form of the participle for every combination of aspect (present, aorist, perfect, future) and voice (active, middle, passive). All participles are based on their finite forms. Here are the masculine nominative singular forms for a thematic and an athematic verb:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! {{lang|grc|λῡ́ω}}<br />''lū́ō''<br />"I release" !! active !! middle !! passive
|-
! present
| {{lang|grc|λῡ́ων}}<br />''lū́ōn'' || colspan="2" | {{lang|grc|λῡόμενος}}<br />''lūómenos''
|-
! aorist
|{{lang|grc|λῡ́σᾱς}}<br />''lū́sās'' || {{lang|grc|λῡσάμενος}}<br />''lūsámenos'' || {{lang|grc|λυθείς}}<br />''lutheís''
|-
! future
| {{lang|grc|λῡ́σων}}<br />''lū́sōn'' || {{lang|grc|λῡσόμενος}}<br />''lūsómenos'' || {{lang|grc|λυθησόμενος}}<br />''luthēsómenos''
|-
! perfect
| {{lang|grc|λελυκώς}}<br />''lelukṓs''|| colspan="2" | {{lang|grc|λελυμένος}}<br />''leluménos''
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! {{lang|grc|τίθημι}}<br />''títhēmi''<br />"I put" !! active !! middle !! passive
|-
! present
| {{lang|grc|τιθείς}}<br />''titheís'' || colspan="2" | {{lang|grc|τιθέμενος}}<br />''tithémenos''
|-
! aorist
|{{lang|grc|θείς}}<br />''theís'' || {{lang|grc|θέμενος}}<br />''thémenos'' || {{lang|grc|τεθείς}}<br />''tetheís''
|-
! future
| {{lang|grc|θήσων}}<br />''thḗsōn'' || {{lang|grc|θησόμενος}}<br />''thēsómenos'' || {{lang|grc|τεθησόμενος}}<br />''tethēsómenos''
|-
! perfect
| {{lang|grc|τεθηκώς}}<br />''tethēkṓs'' || colspan="2" | {{lang|grc|τεθειμένος}}<br />''tetheiménos''
|}

Like an adjective, it can modify a noun, and can be used to embed one thought into another.

{{interlinear|lang=grc|indent=3
|πολλὰ καὶ φύσει καὶ ἐπιστήμῃ δεῖ '''τὸν''' '''εὖ''' '''στρατηγήσοντα''' ἔχειν
|pollà kaì phúsei kaì epistḗmēi deî '''tòn''' '''eû''' '''stratēgḗsonta''' ékhein
|"he '''who intends to be a good general''' must have a great deal of ability and knowledge"}}

In the example, the participial phrase {{lang|grc|τὸν εὖ στρατηγήσοντα}} ''tòn eû stratēgḗsonta'', literally "the one going to be a good general," is used to embed the idea {{lang|grc|εὖ στρατηγήσει}} ''eû stratēgḗsei'' "he will be a good general" within the main verb.

The participle is very widely used in Ancient Greek, especially in prose.

=== Indo-Aryan languages ===

==== Hindi and Urdu ====
There are two types of participles in [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]] (called together [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]), aspectual participles which mark the aspect and non-aspectual participles which do not mark verbal aspect. The table below mentions the different participles present in [[Hindustani grammar|Hindustani]], ''ɸ'' denotes the verb root. The aspectual participles can take a few other copulas after them besides the verb '''''honā''''' "to be". Those copular verbs are '''''rêhna''''' ''"to stay", '''ānā''' "to come", '''jānā''' "to go".<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Shapiro|first=Michael C.|title=A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1989|isbn=81-208-0475-9|location=New Delhi|pages=216–246}}</ref>''
{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="7" |'''''ASPECTUAL PARTICIPLES<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tokaj|first=Jolanta|date=2016-06-01|title=A comparative study of participles, converbs and absolute constructions in Hindi and Medieval Rajasthani|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317806929|journal=Lingua Posnaniensis|volume=58|pages=105–120|doi=10.1515/linpo-2016-0007|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Subbarao|first1=K.|last2=Arora|first2=Harbir|date=2009-01-01|title=The Conjunctive Participle in Dakkhini Hindi-Urdu: Making the Best of Both Worlds*|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284936098|volume=70|pages=359–386}}</ref>'''''
|-
! colspan="4" |Participles
! colspan="2" |Example
baiṭhnā / बैठना / بیٹھنا / to sit
! rowspan="2" |Translation
|-
! colspan="2" |''DECLINABLE''
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" |'''[[Habitual aspect|Habitual]]'''
|♂
|ɸ-tā
|ɸ-tē
|बैठता بیٹھتا  
baiṭhtā
|बैठते بیٹھتے   
baithtē
| rowspan="2" |sits, used to sit
|-
|♀
|ɸ-tī
|ɸ-tīm̥
|बैठती بیٹھتی

baiṭhtī
|बैठतीं بیٹھتیں

baiṭhtīm̥
|-
! rowspan="2" |'''[[Perfective aspect|Perfective]]'''
|♂
|ɸ-(y)ā
|ɸ-(y)ē
|बैठा بیٹھا  
baiṭhā
|बैठे بیٹھے

baiṭhē
| rowspan="2" |sat
|-
|♀
|ɸ-(y)ī
|ɸ-(y)īm̥
|बैठी بیٹھی

baiṭhī
|बैठीं بیٹھیں

baiṭhīm̥
|-
! rowspan="2" |'''[[Progressive aspect|Progressive<sup>''1''</sup>]]'''
|♂
|ɸ + rahā
|ɸ + rahē
|बैठ रहा بیٹھ رہا 
baiṭh rahā
|बैठ रहे بیٹھ رہے

baiṭh rahē
| rowspan="2" |(in the process of) sitting
|-
|♀
|ɸ + rahī
|ɸ + rahīm̥
|बैठ रही بیٹھ رہی

baiṭh rahī
|बैठ रहीं بیٹھ رہیں

baiṭh rahīm̥
|-
! rowspan="2" |'''[[Perfective aspect|Perfective]]'''
'''Adjectival<sup>''2''</sup>'''
|♂
|ɸ-(y)ā huā
|ɸ-(y)ē huē
|बैठा हुआ بیٹھاہوا 
baiṭhā huā
|बैठे हुए بیٹھےہوئے

baiṭhē huē
| rowspan="2" |sitting
|-
|♀
|ɸ-(y)ī huī
|ɸ-(y)ī huīm̥
|बैठी हुई بیٹھیہی

baiṭhī huī
|बैठी हुईं بیٹھی ہوئیں 
baiṭhī huīm̥
|-
! rowspan="2" |'''[[Imperfective aspect|Imperfective]]'''
'''Adjectival<sup>''2''</sup>'''
|♂
|ɸ-tā huā
|ɸ-tē huē
|बैठता हुआ بیٹھتا ہوا  
baiṭhtā huā
|बैठते हुए بیٹھتے ہوئے

baiṭhtē huē
| rowspan="2" |(in the process of) sitting
|-
|♀
|ɸ-tī huī
|ɸ-tī huīm̥
|बैठती हुई بیٹھتی ہی

baiṭhtī huī
|बैठती हुईं بیٹھتی ہوئیں

baiṭhtī huīm̥
|-
! colspan="2" |''INDECLINABLE''
| colspan="5" |
|-
! colspan="2" |Imperfective
'''Progressive'''
| colspan="2" |ɸ-tē-ɸ-tē
| colspan="2" |बैठते-बैठते بیٹھتے - بیٹھتے  
baiṭhtē-baiṭhtē
|while (in the process of) sitting
|-
! colspan="2" |Perfective
Progressive
| colspan="2" |ɸ-ē-ɸ-ē
| colspan="2" |बैठे-बैठे بیٹھے- بیٹھے 
baiṭhē-baiṭhē
|while (already) sitting
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="7" |'''''NON-ASPECTUAL PARTICIPLES <ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Citation|last=Montaut|first=Annie|title=On the nature of the Hindi infinitive: History as an answer to its syntactic behavior?|date=2018-09-10|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327599073|work=Trends in Hindi Linguistics|pages=115–146|isbn=978-3-11-061079-6|access-date=2020-07-03}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Campbell|first=George L.|title=Compendium of the World's Languages|publisher=Routledge|year=1995|isbn=0-415-11392-X|location=Great Britain|pages=225–229}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Shapiro|first=Michael C.|title=A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt Ltd|year=2003|isbn=81-208-0508-9|location=New Delhi|pages=116}}</ref>'''''
|-
! colspan="4" |Participles
! colspan="2" |Example
baiṭhnā / बैठना / بیٹھنا / to sit
! rowspan="2" |Translation
|-
! colspan="2" |''DECLINABLE''
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" |'''[[Infinitive]]'''
|♂
|ɸ-nā
|ɸ-nē
|बैठना بیٹھنا  
baiṭhnā
|बैठने بیٹھنے

baiṭhnē
| rowspan="2" |to sit
|-
|♀
|ɸ-nī
|ɸ-nīm̥
|बैठनी بیتھنی

baiṭhnī
|बैठनीं بیٹھنیں

baiṭhnīm̥
|-
! rowspan="2" |'''[[Prospective aspect|Prospective]]'''
&

'''[[Agent (grammar)|Agentive]]'''
|♂
|ɸ-nēvālā
|ɸ-nēvālē
|बैठनेवाला بیٹھنولا  
baiṭhnēvālā
|बैठनेवाले بیٹھنوالے  
baiṭhnēvālē
| rowspan="2" |(prospective) going to sit

(agentive) a person who sits [sit-er]
|-
|♀
|ɸ-nēvālī
|ɸ-nēvālīm̥
|बैठनेवाली بیٹھنوالی

baiṭhnēvālī
|बैठनेवालीं بیٹھنوالیں

baiṭhnēvālīm̥
|-
! colspan="2" |''INDECLINABLE''
| colspan="5" |
|-
! colspan="2" |'''Oblique'''
'''Infinitive'''
| colspan="2" |ɸ-nē
| colspan="2" |बैठने بیٹھنے  
baiṭhnē
|to sit, sitting
|-
! colspan="2" |'''Conjunctive'''
| colspan="2" |ɸ-kē, ɸ-kar
| colspan="2" |बैठके, बैठकर بیٹھکے ، بیٹھکر  
baiṭhkē, baiṭhkar
|having done sitting, by sitting
|}
|-
| colspan="2" |'''<sup>''1''</sup>''' ''<small>The periphrasatic adjectival marker huā, huē, huī, and huīm̥ are shortened to wā, wē, wī, and wīm̥ respectively in colloquial speech.</small>''
|-
| colspan="2" |'''<sup>''2''</sup>''' ''<small>The progressive aspect marking participles rahā, rahē, rahī, and rahīm̥ are shortened to rā, rē, rī, and rīm̥ respectively in colloquial speech.</small>''
|}

==== Sanskrit ====

Much like [[#Ancient Greek|Ancient Greek]], [[Sanskrit]] has a [[Sanskrit verbs#Participles|wide array of participles]].

===Celtic languages===

====Cornish====
In Cornish, an equivalent present participle construction to English is formed by using ''ow'' (''owth'' before vowels) with a verbal noun, e.g. ''Yma an den ow hwerthin'' ("The man is laughing"), and ''den ow hwerthin'' ("a laughing man"). Like Breton but unlike Welsh, Cornish also has verbal adjectives which are used similarly to English past participles, e.g. ''dehen molys'' ("clotted cream"), from the verbal noun ''mola'' "to clot".

====Welsh====
In Welsh, the effect of a participle in the active voice is constructed by ''yn'' followed by the verb-noun (for the present participle) and ''wedi'' followed by the verb-noun (for the past participle). There is no [[consonant mutation|mutation]] in either case. In the passive voice, participles are usually replaced by a compound phrase such as ''wedi cael ei/eu'' ("having got his/her/their ...ing") in [[Colloquial Welsh morphology|modern Welsh]] and by the impersonal form in [[Literary Welsh morphology|literary Welsh]].

===Slavic languages===

====Polish====
The Polish word for participle is ''imiesłów'' ([[plural|pl.]]: ''imiesłowy''). There are four types of ''imiesłowy'' in two classes:

Adjectival participle (''imiesłów przymiotnikowy''):
* active adjectival participle (''imiesłów przymiotnikowy czynny''): ''robiący'' – "doing", "one who does"
* passive adjectival participle (''imiesłów przymiotnikowy bierny''): ''robiony'' – "being done" (can only be formed off [[transitive verb]]s)

Adverbial participle (''imiesłów przysłówkowy''):
* present adverbial participle (''imiesłów przysłówkowy współczesny''): robiąc – "doing", "while doing"
* perfect adverbial participle (''imiesłów przysłówkowy uprzedni''): ''zrobiwszy'' – "having done" (formed in virtually all cases off verbs in their [[perfective aspect|perfective forms]], here denoted by the [[prefix]] ''z-'')

Due to the distinction between adjectival and adverbial participles, in Polish it is practically impossible to make a [[dangling modifier|dangling participle]] in the classical English meaning of the term. For instance, in the sentence:

*I found them hiding in the closet.

it is unclear whether "I" or "they" were hiding in the closet. In Polish there is a clear distinction:

* ''Znalazłem ich, chowając się w szafie.'' – ''chowając'' is a present adverbial participle agreeing grammatically with the subject ("I")
* ''Znalazłem ich chowających się w szafie.'' – ''chowających'' is an active adjectival participle agreeing grammatically with the object ("them")

====Russian====
Verb: слышать [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐtʲ] (to hear, [[imperfective aspect]])

*Present active: слышащий [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐ.ɕːɪj] "hearing", "who hears" 
*Present passive: слышимый [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɨ̞.mɨ̞j] "being heard", "that is heard", "audible" 
*Past active: слышавший [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐf.ʂɨ̞j] "who heard", "who was hearing" 
*Past passive: слышанный [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐn.nɨ̞j] "that was heard", "that was being heard" 
*[[adverbial participle|Adverbial]] present active: слыша [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐ] "(while) hearing" 
*Adverbial past active: слышав [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐf] "(while) hearing" (used mostly in the negative in the modern language, e.g. не слышав "without ever hearing")

Verb: услышать [ʊˈsɫɨ.ʂɐtʲ] (to hear, [[perfective aspect]])

*Past active: услышавший [ʊˈsɫɨ.ʂɐf.ʂɨ̞j] "who has heard"
*Past passive: услышанный [ʊˈsɫɨ.ʂɐn.nɨ̞j] "that has been heard", "who has been heard"
*Adverbial past active: услышав [ʊˈsɫɨ.ʂɐf] "having heard", "after hearing"

Future participles formed from perfective verbs are not considered a part of standard language.<ref>[https://helsinki.academia.edu/KseniaShagal/Papers/1572263/Future_participles_in_Russian_Expanding_the_participial_paradigm Shagal (Krapivina), Future participles in Russian: Expanding the participial paradigm]</ref>

====Bulgarian====
Participles are adjectives formed from verbs. There are various kinds:

Verb: {{lang|bg|правя}} [pravja] (to do, imperfective aspect):
*Present active: {{lang|bg|правещ}} [pravešt]
*Past active aorist: {{lang|bg|правил}} [pravil]
*Past active imperfect: {{lang|bg|правел}} [pravel] (only used in [[verb]]al constructions)
*Past passive: {{lang|bg|правен}} [praven]
*Adverbial present active: {{lang|bg|правейки}} [pravejki]

Verb: {{lang|bg|направя}} [napravja] (to do, perfective aspect):
*Past active aorist: {{lang|bg|направил}} [napravil]
*Past active imperfect: {{lang|bg|направел}} [napravel] (only used in [[verb]]al constructions)
*Past passive: {{lang|bg|направен}} [napraven]

====Macedonian====
Macedonian has completely lost or transformed the participles of Common Slavic, unlike the other Slavic languages. The following points may be noted:<ref>[http://www.seelrc.org:8080/grammar/mainframe.jsp?nLanguageID=3 Macedonian Grammar], [[Victor Friedman]]</ref>
* present active participle: this has transformed into a verbal adverb;
* present passive participle: there are some isolated cases or remnants of the present passive participle, such as the word лаком [lakom] (greedy);
* past active participle: there is only one remnant of the past active participle, which is the word бивш [bivš] (former). However, this word is often replaced with the word поранешен [poranešen] (former);
* past passive participle: this has been transformed into a verbal adjective (it behaves like a normal adjective);
* resultative participle: this has transformed into a verbal l-form (глаголска л-форма). It is not a participle since it does not function attributively.

===Baltic languages===

====Lithuanian====
Among Indo-European languages, the [[Lithuanian language]] is unique for having fourteen different participial forms of the verb, which can be grouped into five when accounting for inflection by tense. Some of these are also inflected by gender and case. For example, the verb ''eiti'' ("to go, to walk") has the active participle forms ''einąs/einantis'' ("going, walking", present tense), ''ėjęs'' (past tense), ''eisiąs'' (future tense), ''eidavęs'' (past frequentative tense), the passive participle forms ''einamas'' ("being walked", present tense), ''eitas'' ("walked" past tense), ''eisimas'' (future tense), the adverbial participles ''einant'' ("while [he, different subject] is walking" present tense), ''ėjus'' (past tense), ''eisiant'' (future tense), ''eidavus'' (past frequentative tense), the semi-participle ''eidamas'' ("while [he, the same subject] is going, walking") and the participle of necessity ''eitinas'' ("what needs to be walked"). The active and passive participles and the semi-participles are inflected by gender, and the active, passive and necessity participles are inflected by case.