Editing Paul Robeson (section)

===1923–1927: Harlem Renaissance===
Robeson briefly worked as a lawyer, but he renounced a career in law because of [[racism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=111–114}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=54–55}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=71–72}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=29}}</ref> His wife supported them financially. She was the head [[histology|histological chemist]] in Surgical Pathology at [[Presbyterian Hospital (New York City)|New York-Presbyterian Hospital]]. She continued to work there until 1925 when his career took off.<ref name=pauljr>{{cite book | author=Paul Robeson Jr. |title=The Undiscovered Paul Robeson. An Artist's Journey 1898–1939. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=0-471-24265-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/undiscoveredpaul00robe/page/43 43–54] |url=https://archive.org/details/undiscoveredpaul00robe/page/43 |date=2001 }}</ref> They frequented the social functions at the future [[Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture|Schomburg Center]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=115}}; cf. [http://www.nypl.org/locations/schomburg/about/history History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112005157/http://www.nypl.org/locations/schomburg/about/history |date=January 12, 2012 }}, {{cite news |last1=Fraser |first1=C. Gerald |title=Schomburg Unit Listed as Landmark |id={{ProQuest|120941139}} |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1979/04/01/archives/schomburg-unit-listed-as-landmark-spawning-ground-of-talent-40.html |work=The New York Times |date=April 1, 1979 }}</ref> In December 1924 he landed the lead role of Jim in [[Eugene O'Neill]]'s ''[[All God's Chillun Got Wings (play)|All God's Chillun Got Wings]]'',<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=52–55}}; {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=111, 116–117}}; {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=73}}</ref> which culminated with Jim metaphorically consummating his marriage with his white wife by symbolically emasculating himself. ''Chillun's'' opening was postponed due to nationwide controversy over its plot.<ref>{{cite news|title=All God's Chillun|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,717940,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823233626/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,717940,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 23, 2007|quote=The dramatic [[miscegenation]] will shortly be enacted&nbsp;... [produced by the Provincetown Players, headed by O'Neill], dramatist; [[Robert Edmond Jones]], artist, and [[Kenneth Macgowan]], author. Many white people do not like the [plot]. Neither do many black.|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=March 17, 1924|access-date=July 19, 2007}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=57–59}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=118–121}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=32–33}}.</ref>

''Chillun's'' delay led to a revival of ''[[The Emperor Jones]]'' with Robeson as Brutus, a role pioneered by [[Charles Sidney Gilpin]].<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=73–76}}; cf. {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=36–37}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=53, 57–59, 61–62}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=90–91, 122–123}}</ref> The role terrified and galvanized Robeson, as it was practically a 90-minute soliloquy.{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=123}} Reviews declared him an unequivocal success.<ref>{{cite news|first=Will Anthony|last=Madden|title=Paul Robeson Rises To Supreme Heights In 'The Emperor Jones'|date=May 17, 1924|work=Pittsburgh Courier|page=8|id={{ProQuest|201849682}}}}; cf. {{cite news |last1=Corbin |first1=John |title=The Play; Jazzed Methodism |id={{ProQuest|103407566}} |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1924/05/07/archives/the-play-jazzed-methodism.html |work=The New York Times |date=May 7, 1924 |access-date=October 22, 2023 |archive-date=October 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027174330/https://www.nytimes.com/1924/05/07/archives/the-play-jazzed-methodism.html |url-status=live }}.{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=62–63}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=124–125}}.</ref> Though arguably clouded by its controversial subject, his Jim in ''Chillun'' was less well received.<ref>{{cite news|first=Stark|last=Young|title=The Prompt Book|date=August 24, 1924|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|page=X1|id={{ProQuest|103317885}}}}; {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|180569383}} |first1=Burns |last1=Mantle |title='All God's Chillun' Plays Without a Single Protest: O'Neill Makes Good Threat to Produce 'All God's Chillun' |newspaper=Chicago Daily Tribune |date=May 25, 1924 |page=F1 }}{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=126–127}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=64–65}}</ref> He answered criticism of its plot by writing that fate had drawn him to the "untrodden path" of drama, that the true measure of a culture is in its artistic contributions, and that the only true American culture was African-American.<ref>"And there is an ''Othello'' when I am ready.... One of the great measures of a people is its culture. Above all things, we boast that the only true artistic contributions of America are Negro in origin. We boast of the culture of ancient Africa. [I]n any discussion of art or culture, [one must include] music and the drama and its interpretation. So today Roland Hayes is infinitely more of a racial asset than many who 'talk' at great length. Thousands of people hear him, see him, are moved by him, and are brought to a clearer understanding of human values. If I can do something of a like nature, I shall be happy. My early experiences give me much hope." cf. {{harvnb|Wilson|2000|p=292}}.</ref>

The success of his acting placed him in elite social circles<ref>{{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=38–40}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=68–71, 76}}, {{harvnb|Sampson|2005|p=9}}</ref> and his rise to fame, which was forcefully aided by Essie,<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=142–143}}; cf. {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|201834383}} |title='I Owe My Success To My Wife,' Says Paul Robeson, Star In O'Neill's Drama: Tendered Informal Reception in New York – Newspapers Well Represented |newspaper=The Pittsburgh Courier |date=June 14, 1924 |page=13 }}</ref> had happened very rapidly.{{sfn|Robeson|2001|p=84}} Essie's ambition for Robeson was a startling dichotomy to his indifference.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=84}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=149, 152}}.</ref> She quit her job, became his agent, and negotiated his first movie role in a silent [[race film]] directed by [[Oscar Micheaux]], ''[[Body and Soul (1925 film)|Body and Soul]]'' (1925).<ref>{{harvnb|Nollen|2010|pp=14, 18–19}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=67}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=160}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=43}}</ref> To support a charity for single mothers, Robeson headlined a concert singing [[spirituals]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Robeson to Sing for Nursery Fund: Benefit to Be Given in Greenwich Village Theatre March 15|date=March 11, 1925|newspaper=[[New York Amsterdam News]]|page=9|id={{ProQuest|226378502}}}}</ref> He performed his repertoire of spirituals on the radio.<ref>{{cite news|first=Ulysses |last=Coates|title=Radio|date=April 18, 1925|work=Chicago Defender|page=A8|id={{ProQuest|492070128}}}}; cf. {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|226176207}} |title=Robeson to Sing Over Radio |newspaper=[[New York Amsterdam News]]|date=April 8, 1925 |page=2 }}</ref>

[[Lawrence Benjamin Brown]], who had become renowned while touring as a pianist with gospel singer [[Roland Hayes]], chanced upon Robeson in Harlem.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=78}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=139}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=85}}</ref> The two ad-libbed a set of spirituals, with Robeson as lead and Brown as accompanist. This so enthralled them that they booked [[Provincetown Playhouse]] for a concert.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=79}}; cf. {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=41–42}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=140}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=85–86}}</ref> The pair's rendition of African-American folk songs and spirituals was captivating,<ref>{{cite news|title=Clara Young Loses $75,000 in Jewels|date=April 20, 1925|work=The New York Times|page=21|id={{ProQuest|103557765}}}}; cf. {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|201840160}} |title=Paul Robeson, Lawrence Brown Score Big New York Success With Negro Songs |newspaper=The Pittsburgh Courier |date=May 2, 1925 |page=10 }}, {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|226457501}} |title=Music: Postal Carrier to Give Song Recital |newspaper=[[New York Amsterdam News]]|date=April 15, 1925 |page=9 }}{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=80–81}}.</ref> and [[Victor Talking Machine Company|Victor Records]] signed Robeson to a contract in September 1925.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=82, 86}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=149}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=93}}, {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|226389224}} |title=Robeson on Victor |newspaper=[[New York Amsterdam News]]|date=September 16, 1925 |page=6}}</ref>

The Robesons went to London for a revival of ''The Emperor Jones'', before spending the rest of the fall on holiday on the French Riviera, socializing with [[Gertrude Stein]] and [[Claude McKay]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=45–47}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=83, 88–98}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=161–167}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=95–97}}</ref> Robeson and Brown performed a series of concert tours in America from January 1926 until May 1927.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=169–184}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=98–106}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=47–49}}</ref>

During a hiatus in New York, Robeson learned that Essie was several months pregnant.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=106}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=184}}</ref> [[Paul Robeson Jr.]] was born in November 1927 in New York, while Robeson and Brown toured Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=143}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=106}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=184}}</ref> Essie experienced complications from the birth,<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=110}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=147}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=49}}</ref> and by mid-December, her health had deteriorated dramatically. Ignoring Essie's objections, her mother wired Robeson and he immediately returned to her bedside.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=186}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=112}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=148}}</ref> Essie completely recovered after a few months.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paul Robeson |url=https://www.tumblr.com/blackkudos/614854668036816896/paul-robeson |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=Tumblr |language=en-US}}</ref>