Editing Phrygian language (section)

==Grammar==
What can be recovered of the grammatical structure of Phrygian was typically [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]. Declensions and conjugations are strikingly similar to ancient Greek.

=== Nouns ===
Phrygian nouns belong to three [[gender (grammar)|genders]]: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Forms are [[grammatical number|singular or plural]]; [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]] forms are not known. Four [[case (grammar)|cases]] are known: [[nominative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]], and [[dative]].

==== Substantives ====
Nouns belong to three stem groups: ''o''-stems, ''a''-stems, and consonant stems ("''C''-stems"); the latter group also includes ''i''- and ''u''-stems. In addition there is a group of personal names with an e-stem.

The paradigm for nouns is as follows (to keep the paradigm clear, the many minor spelling variants, including New-Phrygian ones in Greek characters, are omitted):<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 69–73.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | ''a''-stems !! colspan="2" | ''o''-stems !! colspan="2" | ''C''-stems !! ''e''-stems
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Neuter !! Masc./Fem. !! Neuter !! (Personal names)
|-
| rowspan="4" | Singular || Nominative || align="center" | -a(s) || align="center" | -a || align="center" | -os || rowspan="2" align="center" | -un || align="center" | -s, -Ø{{efn|The Nominative Singular of consonant stems ends in -s for t-, d-, s-, i-, and u-stems; it ends in -Ø (without -s) for l-, m-, n-, r-, and some k-stems.}} || rowspan="2" align="center" | -Ø || align="center" | -es (-e)
|-
| Accusative || colspan="2" align="center" | -an || align="center" | -un (-on) || align="center" | -(a)n || align="center" | -in
|-
| Genitive || colspan="2" align="center" | -as || colspan="2" align="center" | -o (-ov) || colspan="2" align="center" | -os || align="center" | -itos
|-
| Dative || colspan="2" align="center" | -ai (-a) || colspan="2" align="center" | -oi (-o) || colspan="2" align="center" | -ei || align="center" | ?
|-
| rowspan="4" | Plural || Nominative || colspan="2" align="center" | -a(s) (?) || align="center" | -oi || rowspan="2" align="center" | -a || align="center" | -es || rowspan="2" align="center" | -a || align="center" | —
|-
| Accusative || colspan="2" align="center" | -ais || align="center" | -ois (?) || align="center" | -ais (?) || align="center" | —
|-
| Genitive || colspan="2" align="center" | ? || colspan="2" align="center" | -un || colspan="2" align="center" | ? || align="center" | —
|-
| Dative || colspan="2" align="center" | -as || colspan="2" align="center" | -os || colspan="2" align="center" | ? || align="center" | —
|}
{{notelist}}

Examples:<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 127–310.</ref>
* '''''a''-stem: μανκα''' [''manka''] (''stele''): Nom. μανκα [''manka'']; Acc. μανκαν [''mankan'']; Dat. μανκαι [''mankai''], μανκα, μανκης, μανκε.
* '''''o''-stem: ''devos''''' ('god', cf. Greek θεός): Nom. ''devos''; Acc. (or Gen.?) ''devun''; Pl. Dat. δεως [''deos''], διως, δεος, δδεω, διος, δυως.
* '''''C''- (''r''-)stem: ''daker''''' (meaning not clear): Nom. ''daker'', δακαρ; Acc. ''dakeran''; Pl. Nom. δακερης [''dakeres'']; Pl. Acc. ''dakerais''.
* '''''C''- (''n''-)stem: ορουαν''' [''orouan''] ('keeper, protector'): Nom. ορουεναν [''orouenan'']; Acc. ορουαν [''orouan'']; Gen. ορουενος [''orouenos''].
* '''''C''- (''k''-)stem: ''knays''''' ('woman, wife', cf. Greek γυνή): Nom. ''knays, knais''; Acc. κναικαν [''knaikan'']; Gen. κναικος [''knaikos'']; Pl. Nom. ''knaykes''.
* '''''i''-stem: *''Tis''''' ('Zeus'): Acc. Τιαν [''Tian'']; Dat. Τιε [''Tie''], Τι, Τιη, Tiei; Gen. Τιος [''Tios''].
* '''''e''-stem: ''Manes''''' ('Manes'): Nom. ''Manes, Mane'', Μανεις; Acc. ''Manin''; Gen. ''Manitos''.

==== Pronouns ====
The most frequently used [[pronoun]]s are [[demonstrative]], [[relative pronoun|relative]], and [[anaphora (linguistics)|anaphoric]]. Their declensions are similar to those of nouns. Two rare pronouns, ''autos'' and ''tis'', may be loanwords from Greek.

The '''demonstrative pronoun''', ''this'', has a short (''ses'') and a long form (''semoun''). Its declension:<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 84–85, 279–280.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
! rowspan="2" | Case !! colspan="3" | Singular !!  colspan="3" | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Neuter !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Neuter !! Feminine
|-
| Nominative || align="center" | ses (?) || rowspan="2" align="center" | si || align="center" | σας (?) ||  || rowspan="2" |  || 
|-
| Accusative || align="center" | sin, σεμουν || align="center" | εσαν (?) || align="center" | ses (?) || 
|-
| Genitive || colspan="2" |  || align="center"| σας (?) || colspan="2" |  || colspan="2" | 
|-
| Dative || colspan="2" | σεμουν, σεμον, simun,{{nbsp}}... || σα, σαι, σας, esai, σαν || colspan="2" align="center" | σως (?) || colspan="2" | 
|}
There is also a [[clitic]] particle variant ''s-'', prefixed to names: sManes (''this Manes'').

The '''relative pronoun''' is ''yos'' (''who, whoever''). Though appearing often, only three different cases are attested. Paradigm:<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 81–82, 306.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
! rowspan="2" | Case !! colspan="3" | Singular !!  colspan="3" | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Neuter !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Neuter !! Feminine
|-
| Nominative || align="center" | yos, ios, ιος, ις,{{nbsp}}... || rowspan="2" align="center" | || align="center" |  ||  || rowspan="2" |  || 
|-
| Accusative || align="center" | ιον || align="center" | ιαν || align="center" |  || 
|-
| Genitive || colspan="2" |  || align="center"|  || colspan="2" |  || colspan="2" | 
|-
| Dative || colspan="2" |  ||  || colspan="2" align="center" |  || colspan="2" | 
|}
A reduplicated form ''yosyos'', ''whoever'', is also known (cf. Latin ''quisquis'').

An '''anaphoric pronoun''' is ''tos'' (''the one mentioned, this one, he''). It is often used in the standard expression ιος νι{{nbsp}}..., τος νι{{nbsp}}...: ''whoever (damages this tomb), this one (will be damned)''; ''whoever ({{nbsp}}...), he ({{nbsp}}...)''.
Declension:<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 79–80, 295–296.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
! rowspan="2" | Case !! colspan="3" | Singular !!  colspan="3" | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Neuter !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Neuter !! Feminine
|-
| Nominative || align="center" | τος || rowspan="2" align="center" | ti ||  ||  || rowspan="2" align="center" | ta || 
|-
| Accusative ||  || align="center" | tan, ταν ||  || 
|-
| Genitive || colspan="2" align="center" | tovo ||  || colspan="2" |  || colspan="2" | 
|-
| Dative || colspan="2" align="center" | του, το || align="center" | ται, τα  || colspan="2" |  || colspan="2" | 
|}

''Tos'' has a particle variant, τι, του, ''-t, -τ''. The particles τι and του, used after a demonstrative pronoun, or suffixed to it as ''-t'' or -τ, seem to emphasize the following noun: (''whoever does damage'') σεμουν του κνουμανει, ''to this very tomb''.

Another anaphoric pronoun is ''oy''&nbsp;/ ''ioi''. It only occurs as a Dative Singular, ''oy'', ιοι, οι (''to him, to her'').<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 80, 207.</ref>

The '''[[intensive pronoun|emphatic pronoun]]''' ''autos'' (''the very one, the same''; cf. Greek αὐτός) can also be used anaphorically. Its composite ''ve(n)autos'' is a [[reflexive pronoun]], ''himself'' (Greek ἑαυτός).<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 81, 150–151, 192.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
! rowspan="2" | Case !! colspan="3" | Singular !!  colspan="3" | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Neuter !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Neuter !! Feminine
|-
| Nominative || align="center" | αυτος || rowspan="2" |  ||  || align="center" | avtoi (?) || rowspan="2" |  || 
|-
| Accusative || align="center" | αυτον, (ven)avtun ||  |  ||  || 
|-
| Genitive || colspan="2" |  ||  || colspan="2" |  || colspan="2" | 
|-
| Dative || colspan="2" align="center" | avtoi (?), αυτω || align="center" | avtay, αυταη, (οε)αυται  || colspan="2" |  || colspan="2" | 
|}

The '''[[indefinite pronoun]]''' ''kos'' (''somebody, something'') is only attested in the nominative singular: masculine kos, κος; neuter kin, κιν. A synonym is the very rare Greek loanword ''tis'' (τις, neuter τι).<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 83, 224, 292.</ref>

The '''[[personal pronoun|personal]]''' or '''[[possessive determiner|possessive pronoun]]''' ''her'' (only the feminine is attested) is ''va'' (Nom. va, ουα; Acc. ουαν, οαν; Gen. vay).<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 83, 189. Composites may be ''ovevis'' (''his own?''; Acc. ''ovevin'') and ''ki(s)vis'' (''any?''; Nom. κισυις, Nom./Acc. Ntr. κιυιν) (Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 219, 255).</ref>

==== Adjectives ====
The declension of adjectival nouns is entirely similar to that of substantives.

Examples (note that ''mekas'' corresponds to Greek μέγας, ''big, great'', and that -τετικμενος and γεγρειμενος parallel Greek Perfect Passive participles with reduplication and ending in ''-menos''):<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 162, 240, 293–294.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
! Case !! Ending !! mekas <br>''big, great'' !! Ending !! τιττετικμενος <br>''accursed'' !! γεγρειμενος <br>''written''
|-
| Nom. Sing. Masc. || align="center" | -a(s) || mekas, μεκας || align="center" | -os || τιτ(τ)ετικμενος,{{nbsp}}... || 
|-
| Acc. Sing. Masc. || rowspan="2" align="center" | -an || rowspan="2" | μεκαν || align="center" | -on ||  || γεγρειμενον
|-
| Acc. Sing. Fem. || align="center" | -an ||  || γεγρειμεναν
|-
| Dat. Sing. || align="center" | -ai (-a) || μεκα || align="center" | -o (-ov) / -ai (-a) ||  || 
|-
| Nom. Pl. Masc. || align="center" | -a(s) (?) || || align="center" | -oi || τιττετικμενοι || 
|-
| Acc. Pl. || align="center" | -ais || mekais (?) || align="center" | -ois (?) / -ais || || 
|-
| Nom./Acc. Pl. Ntr. || align="center" | -a (?) || || align="center" | -a || τιττετικμενα || 
|-
| Gen. Pl. Masc./Fem. || align="center" | ? || || align="center" | -un || τιτετουκμενουν || 
|-
| Dat. Pl. || align="center" | -as || mekais (?) || align="center" | -os / -as || || 
|}

=== Verbs ===
Due to the limited textual material, the [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] of Phrygian verbs can only be determined very incompletely. However, it is clear that it closely resembles the [[Ancient Greek]] verbal system. Three [[Grammatical tense|tenses]] are known: [[Present tense|present]], [[aorist]] (with [[Augment (Indo-European)|augment]] and ''-s-'' infix), and [[Perfect (grammar)|perfect]]. [[Future tense|Future]] forms have not yet been discovered. Neither has a [[pluperfect]]; a few forms may be an [[imperfect]]. There are two [[voice (grammar)|voices]], [[Active voice|active]] and [[mediopassive]]. As to [[mood (grammar)|mood]], [[indicative]] and [[Imperative mood|imperative]] are clearly documented, but suspected [[subjunctive]] forms and an [[optative]] (the latter with typical ''-oi-'' infix) need confirmation. [[Participle]]s are present, most of them perfect passive forms with [[reduplication]] and ending in ''-menos''. [[Infinitive]]s are not known. As to [[person (grammar)|person]] and [[number (grammar)|number]], most [[finite verb|finite forms]] are 3rd person singular, a few 3rd person plural, and only very few 1st person singular.

Examples:<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 84–91.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
! rowspan="2" | Tense !! rowspan="2" | Mood !! rowspan="2" | Voice !! rowspan="2" | Person, number !! colspan="2" | Ending !! rowspan="2" | Example !! rowspan="2" | Translation
|-
! Old Phrygian !! New Phrygian 
|-
| rowspan="13" | present || rowspan="5" | indicative || rowspan="3" | active || 1st singular || -u || (-ω) || atikraiu || ''I say''
|-
| 3rd singular || -ti, -i || -τι || poreti || ''he{{nbsp}}...?''
|-
| 3rd plural || -n || -ν || γερεν (?) || ''they{{nbsp}}...?''
|-
| rowspan="2" | mediopassive || 1st singular || -or ||  || dakor (?) || ''I am put; I put/do for myself''
|-
| 3rd singular || -tor, -toy || -τορ, -τοι || odeketoy, <br>αδακκιτορ || ''it is put; he puts/does for himself''
|-
| rowspan="3" | subjunctive || rowspan="2" | active || 3rd singular || -ti, -t || -τι, -τ || αββερετ || ''let him produce''
|-
| 3rd plural || -sini (?) || -σσιννι (?) || δεδασσιννι || ''let them put/do''
|-
| mediopassive || 3rd singular || -toy || -τοι, -τορ || abretoy, <br>αββερετοι, <br>αββερετορ || ''let it be produced''
|-
| optative || active || 3rd singular || -oioi, -oyoy || || kakoioi || ''may he damage''
|-
| rowspan="3" | imperative || rowspan="2" | active || 3rd singular || -tu(v), -to || -του || ituv, <br>ειτου || ''he must become''
|-
| 3rd plural || -nuv || -νου, -ττνου || ειττνου, <br>ιννου || ''they must become''
|-
| mediopassive || 3rd singular || -do || -δου || lakedo || ''he must take for himself''
|-
| participle || active ||  || -un ||  || torvetun || ''cutting wood''
|-
| imperfect || indicative || active || 3rd singular || -e (?), -t (?) || || estat || ''he erected''
|-
| rowspan="3" | aorist || rowspan="3" | indicative || rowspan="2" | active || 3rd singular || -es || -ες || estaes, <br>εσταες || ''he erected''
|-
| 3rd plural || (-saen) || -σαεν || ουρνουσαεν || ''they have{{nbsp}}...ed?''
|-
| mediopassive || 3rd singular || -toi, -toy || -τοι || egertoi, <br>εγερετοι || ''it is brought''
|-
| rowspan="4" | perfect || rowspan="3" | indicative || rowspan="2" | active || 3rd singular || -ti, -t, -ey (?) || -ετ, -ιτ, -εν (?) || daket, <br>αδακετ, <br>αδακεν || ''he has done, put''
|-
| 3rd plural || (-en) || -εν || δακαρεν || ''they have done, put''
|-
| mediopassive || 3rd plural || (-na) (?) || -να (?) || ενσταρνα || ''he has been appointed''
|-
| participle || passive || masc. nom. sg. || -menos || -μενος || γεγαριτμενος || ''devoted to, cursed''
|}

The [[Augment (Indo-European)|augment]] Phrygian seems to exhibit, is like [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]], [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]], and [[Armenian language|Armenian]]; cf. {{lang|xpg|eberet}}, probably corresponding to [[Proto-Indo-European]] ''{{lang|ine-x-proto|*e-bher-e-t}}'' (''{{langx|grc|épʰere}}'' with loss of the final ''t'', ''{{langx|sa|ábharat}})'', although comparison to examples like ''ios{{nbsp}}... addaket'' 'who does{{nbsp}}... to', which is not a past tense form (perhaps [[subjunctive]]), shows that ''-et'' may be from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) primary ending {{lang|ine-x-proto|*-eti}}.

=== Syntax ===
Normal word order in Phrygian sentences is [[subject (grammar)|Subject]] – [[object (grammar)|Object]] – [[Verb]] ("[[subject-object-verb|SOV]]"). However, if a [[object (grammar)#Types|direct object]] (DO) needs to be emphasized, it may be placed at the head of the sentence, before the subject. Part of an [[object (grammar)#Types|indirect object]] (IO) may be placed after the verb. Example:

:: {| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
| align="center" | ''κος'' || align="center" | ''σεμουν'' || align="center" | ''κνουμανει'' || align="center" | ''κακουν'' || align="center" | ''αδδακετ'' || align="center" | ''αινι'' || align="center" | ''μανκα'' || (etc.)
|-
| align="center" | ''kos'' || align="center" | ''semoun'' || align="center" | ''knoumanei'' || align="center" | ''kakoun'' || align="center" | ''addaket'' || align="center" | ''aini'' || align="center" | ''manka'' || (etc.)
|-
| align="center" | whoever || align="center" | to this || align="center" | tomb || align="center" | harm || align="center" | does || align="center" | or || align="center" | to the stele || (he will be damned)
|-
| align="center" | S || colspan="2" align="center" | IO, part 1 || align="center" | DO || align="center" | V || colspan="2" align="center" | IO, part 2 ||{{nbsp}}...
|}

The function of the several nominal cases (nominative, accusative, etc.) presents no surprises. The dative is perhaps also used as a [[locative case|locative]]. When the subject of a sentence is compounded of more than one item ("''A and B and C...''"), that vary in gender or number, the verb or [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] agrees in gender and number with the ''first'' item (''A'') ([[Alexander Lubotsky|Lubotsky]]'s [[case government|rection]] rule). Adjectives follow their noun, except when emphasis is intended.<ref>Obrador Cursach (2018), pp. 95–98.</ref>