Editing Plough (section)

===Mould-board ploughing ===
[[File:Mouldboard plough.JPG|thumb|A reconstruction of a wooden mould-board plough]]
To grow crops regularly in less-fertile areas, it was once believed that the soil must be turned to bring nutrients to the surface. A major advance for this type of farming was the turn plough, also known as the mould-board plough (UK), moldboard plow (U.S.), or frame-plough.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fraser |first1=Evan D. G. |last2=Rimas |first2=Andrew |title=Empires of food: feast, famine and the rise and fall of civilizations |date=2011 |publisher=Arrow Books |location=London |isbn=978-0099534723 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X_OaBDzFAHwC |access-date=17 April 2024}}</ref> A coulter (or skeith) could be added to cut vertically into the ground just ahead of the share (in front of the frog), a wedge-shaped cutting edge at the bottom front of the mould board with the landside of the frame supporting the under-share (below-ground component). The heavy iron moldboard plow was invented in [[China]]'s [[Han Empire]] in the 1st and 2nd century, and from there it spread to the [[Netherlands]], which led the Agricultural Revolution.{{r|temple|p=20}} The mould-board plough introduced in the 18th century was a major advance in technology.<ref name="Britannica" /> 

{{blockquote|Chinese ploughs from Han times on fulfill all these conditions of efficiency nicely, which is presumably why the standard Han plough team consisted of two animals only, and later teams usually of a single animal, rather than the four, six or eight draught animals common in Europe before the introduction of the curved mould-board and other new principles of design in the 18th century. Though the mould-board plough first appeared in Europe in early medieval, if not in late Roman, times, pre-eighteenth century mould-boards were usually wooden and straight (Fig. 59). The enormous labour involved in pulling such a clumsy construction necessitated large plough-teams, and this meant that large areas of land had to be reserved as pasture. In China, where much less animal power was required, it was not necessary to maintain the mixed arable-pasture economy typical of Europe: fallows could be reduced and the arable area expanded, and a considerably larger population could be supported than on the same amount of land in Europe.{{sfn|Bray|1984|p=178}}|Francesca Bray}}

The upper parts of the frame carry (from the front) the coupling for the motive power (horses), the coulter, and the landside frame. Depending on the size of the implement, and the number of furrows it is designed to plough at one time, a fore-carriage with a wheel or wheels (known as a furrow wheel and support wheel) may be added to support the frame (wheeled plough). In the case of a single-furrow plough there is one wheel at the front and handles at the rear for the ploughman to maneuver it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Taonga |first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu |title=Single-furrow plough |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/17565/single-furrow-plough |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=teara.govt.nz |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Furrows, ploughed field.jpg|thumb|right|The mouldboard plow leaves distinct furrows (trenches) across the field.]]
When dragged through a field, the coulter cuts down into the soil and the share cuts horizontally from the previous furrow to the vertical cut. This releases a rectangular strip of sod to be lifted by the share and carried by the mould board up and over, so that the strip of [[sod]] (slice of the [[topsoil]]) that is being cut lifts and rolls over as the plough moves forward, dropping back upside down into the furrow and onto the turned soil from the previous run down the field. Each gap in the ground where the soil has been lifted and moved across (usually to the right) is called a furrow. The sod lifted from it rests at an angle of about 45 degrees in the adjacent furrow, up the back of the sod from the previous run.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FMP 211 :: Lecture 05 |url=http://eagri.org/eagri50/FMP211/lec05.html |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=eagri.org}}</ref>

A series of ploughings run down a field leaves a row of sods partly in the furrows and partly on the ground lifted earlier. Visually, across the rows, there is the land on the left, a furrow (half the width of the removed strip of soil) and the removed strip almost upside-down lying on about half of the previous strip of inverted soil, and so on across the field. Each layer of soil and the gutter it came from forms a classic furrow. The mould-board plough greatly reduced the time needed to prepare a field and so allowed a farmer to work a larger area of land. In addition, the resulting pattern of low (under the mould board) and high (beside it) ridges in the soil forms water channels, allowing the soil to drain. In areas where snow build-up causes difficulties, this lets farmers plant the soil earlier, as the [[meltwater]] run-off drains away more quickly.<ref>{{Cite web |title=runoff |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/runoff |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}</ref>

====Parts====
There are five major parts of a mouldboard plough:
#Mouldboard
#Share
#Landside (short or long)
#Frog (sometimes called a standard)
#Tailpiece

The '''share''', landside and mould board are bolted to the frog, which is an irregular piece of cast iron at the base of the plough body, to which the soil-wearing parts are bolted.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Animal Drawn Plough {{!}} Definition, Equipment Features & Uses {{!}} Golden Crop |url=https://www.rgexim.com/animal-drawn-plough/ |access-date=2023-06-02 |website=www.rgexim.com |language=en}}</ref>

The share is the edge that makes the horizontal cut to separate the furrow slice from the soil below. Conventional shares are shaped to penetrate soil efficiently: the tip is pointed downward to pull the share into the ground to a regular depth. The clearance, usually referred to as suction or down suction, varies with different makes and types of plough. Share configuration is related to soil type, particularly in the down suction or concavity of its lower surface. Generally three degrees of clearance or down suction are recognised: regular for light soil, deep for ordinary dry soil, and double-deep for clay and gravelly soils.<ref>{{Cite web |title=tillage {{!}} Definition, Types, Equipment, Practices, Importance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tillage |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

As the share wears away, it becomes blunt and the plough will require more power to pull it through the soil. A plough body with a worn share will not have enough "suck" to ensure it delves the ground to its full working depth.

[[File:Traditional Filipino water buffalo plows.png|thumb|Two types of traditional Filipino [[water buffalo]]-drawn ploughs used for rice-farming (1873)<ref name="Jagor">{{Cite book |last1=Jagor |first1=Fedor |title=Reisen in den Philippinen |date=1873 |publisher=Weidmannsche Buchhandlung |location=Berlin |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/53322/53322-h/53322-h.htm}}</ref>]]

In addition, the share has horizontal suction related to the amount its point is bent out of line with the land side. Down suction causes the plough to penetrate to proper depth when pulled forward, while horizontal suction causes the plough to create the desired width of furrow. The share is a plane part with a trapezoidal shape. It cuts the soil horizontally and lifts it. Common types are regular, winged-plane, bar-point, and share with mounted or welded point. The regular share conserves a good cut but is recommended on stone-free soils. The winged-plane share is used on heavy soil with a moderate amount of stones. The bar-point share can be used in extreme conditions (hard and stony soils). The share with a mounted point is somewhere between the last two types. Makers have designed shares of various shapes (trapesium, diamond, etc.) with bolted point and wings, often separately renewable. Sometimes the share-cutting edge is placed well in advance of the mould board to reduce the pulverizing action of the soil.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Farm Machinery and Equipment-I: Lesson 8. Study of mould board plough: accessories, adjustments, operation and material of construction Mould Board Ploughs |url=http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=125367#:~:text=g)%20Throat:,the%20throat%20of%20the%20share. |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in}}</ref>

The '''mould board''' is the part of the plough that receives the furrow slice from the share.<ref name="Britannica"/> It is responsible for lifting and turning the furrow slice and sometimes for shattering it, depending on the type of mould board, ploughing depth and soil conditions. The intensity of this depends on the type of mould board. To suit different soil conditions and crop requirements, mould boards have been designed in different shapes, each producing its own furrow profile and surface finish, but essentially they still conform to the original plough body classification. The various types have been traditionally classified as general purpose, digger, and semi-digger, as described below.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Muth |first=Reannon |title=The 7 Types of Excavators: Which One Should You Choose? |url=https://www.heavyequipmentrentals.com/about/news/types-of-excavators |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=www.heavyequipmentrentals.com |language=en}}</ref>

*The general-purpose mould board. This has a low draft body with a gentle, cross-sectional convex curve from top to bottom, which turns a furrow three parts wide by two parts deep, e. g. {{convert|300|mm|abbr=on}} wide by {{convert|200|mm|abbr=on}} deep. It turns the furrow slice slowly almost without breaking it, and is normally used for shallow ploughing (maximum {{convert|200|mm|abbr=on}} depth). It is useful for grassland ploughing and sets up the land for weathering by winter frosts, which reduces the time taken to prepare a seedbed for spring sown crops.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}
*The digger mould board is short, abruptly curved with a concave cross-section both from top to bottom and from shin to tail. It turns the furrow slice rapidly, giving maximum shatter, deeper than its width. It is normally used for very deep ploughing ({{convert|300|mm|abbr=on}} deep or more). It has a higher power requirement and leaves a very broken surface. Digger ploughs are mainly used for land for potatoes and other root crops.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}
*The semi-digger mould board is somewhat shorter than the general-purpose mould board, but with a concave cross-section and a more abrupt curve. Being intermediate between the two mould boards described above, it has a performance that comes in between (approximately {{convert|250|mm|abbr=on}} deep), with less shattering than the digger mouldboard. It turns an almost square-sectioned furrow and leaves a more broken surface finish. Semi-digger mould boards can be used at various depths and speeds, which suits them for most of the general ploughing on a farm.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}
*In addition, slatted mould boards are preferred by some farmers, though they are a less common type. They consist of a number of curved steel slats bolted to the frog along the length of the mould board, with gaps between the slats. They tend to break up the soil more than a full mould board and improve soil movement across the mould board when working in sticky soils where a solid mould board does not scour well.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

[[File:Steel plough, Emly.jpg|thumb|A steel plough]]
The '''land side '''is the flat plate which presses against and transmits the lateral thrust of the plough bottom to the furrow wall. It helps to resist the side pressure exerted by the furrow slice on the mould board. It also helps to stabilise the plough while in operation. The rear bottom end of the landslide, which rubs against the furrow sole, is known as the heel. A heel iron is bolted to the end of the rear of the land side and helps to support the back of the plough. The land side and share are arranged to give a "lead" towards the unploughed land, so helping to sustain the correct furrow width. The land side is usually made of solid medium-carbon steel and is very short, except at the rear bottom of the plough. The heel or rear end of the rear land side may be subject to excessive wear if the rear wheel is out of adjustment, and so a chilled iron heel piece is frequently used. This is inexpensive and can be easily replaced. The land side is fastened to the frog by plough bolts.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

The '''frog''' (standard) is the central part of the plough bottom to which the other components of the bottom are attached. It is an irregular piece of metal, which may be made of cast iron for cast iron ploughs or welded steel for steel ploughs. The frog is the foundation of the plough bottom. It takes the shock resulting from hitting rocks, and therefore should be tough and strong. The frog is in turn fastened to the plough frame.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

A '''runner''' extending from behind the share to the rear of the plough controls the direction of the plough, because it is held against the bottom land-side corner of the new furrow being formed. The holding force is the weight of the sod, as it is raised and rotated, on the curved surface of the mould board. Because of this runner, the mould board plough is harder to turn around than the scratch plough, and its introduction brought about a change in the shape of fields{{snd}}from mostly square fields into longer rectangular "strips" (hence the introduction of the [[furlong]]).{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

====Iron ploughshare====
An advance on the basic design was the iron ploughshare, a replaceable horizontal cutting surface mounted on the tip of the share. The earliest ploughs with a detachable and replaceable share date from around 1000 BC in the [[Ancient Near East]],<ref>K. D. White (1984): ''Greek and Roman Technology'', London: Thames and Hudson, p. 59.</ref> and the earliest iron ploughshares from about 500 BC in China.<ref name="greenberger 2006 11-12">Robert Greenberger, ''The Technology of Ancient China'' (New York: Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2006), pp. 11–12.</ref> Early mould boards were wedges that sat inside the cut formed by the coulter, turning over the soil to the side. The ploughshare spread the cut horizontally below the surface, so that when the mould board lifted it, a wider area of soil was turned over. Mould boards are known in Britain from the late 6th century onwards.<ref>Hill and Kucharski 1990.</ref>
[[File:Aratro 1849.jpg|thumb|19th century ploughs]]

====Types====
There are multiple types of ploughs available.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-10-02 |title=What is a Plough - Meaning - Types of Plows & Use of Plough |url=https://www.tractoragriculture.com/plough-meaning-types-uses/ |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=Tractor Agriculture |language=en-US}}</ref>
*Mould board ploughs cut the soil into pieces.
*Disc ploughs can be used where mould plows are not suitable.
*Rotary ploughs are used to prepare seed beds.