Editing Ryukyuans (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of the Ryukyu Islands}}

===Early history===
{{Main|Shellmidden Period}}
The Ryukyu Islands were inhabited from at least 32,000–18,000 years ago,{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=37}} but their fate and relation with contemporary Ryukyuans is uncertain.{{sfn|Pellard|2015|p=27}} During the [[Jōmon period]] (i.e., Kaizuka) or so-called [[History of the Ryukyu Islands#Okinawa midden culture|shell midden period]] (6,700–1,000 [[Before Present|YBP]]) of the Northern Ryukyus,{{sfn|Pellard|2015|p=27}} the population lived in a hunter-gatherer society, with similar mainland [[Jōmon pottery]].<ref name="TakeshiroSato2014"/> In the latter part of Jōmon period, archaeological sites moved near the seashore, suggesting the engagement of people in fishery.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}} It is considered that from the latter half of Jōmon period, the Ryukyu Islands developed their own culture.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=38}} Some scholars consider that the language and cultural influence was more far-reaching than blending of race and physical types.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}} The Yayoi culture which had a major influence on the Japanese islands, is traditionally dated from 3rd century BCE and recently from around 1000 BCE,{{sfn|Robbeets|2015|p=26}} and is notable for the introduction of Yayoi-type pottery, metal tools and cultivation of rice, however although some [[Yayoi pottery]] and tools were excavated on the Okinawa Islands, the rice was not widely cultivated before the 12th century CE, nor the Yayoi and the following [[Kofun period]] (250–538 CE) culture expanded into the Ryukyus.{{sfn|Pellard|2015|p=27}} The Southern Ryukyus culture was isolated from the Northern, and its Shimotabaru period (4,500–3,000 YBP) was characterized by a specific style of pottery, and the Aceramic period (2,500–800 YBP), during which no pottery was produced in this region.{{sfn|Pellard|2015|p=27}}<ref name="TakeshiroSato2014"/> Their prehistoric [[Yaeyama Islands|Yaeyama]] culture showed some intermingled affinities with various Taiwanese cultures, broadly, that the [[Sakishima Islands]] have some traces similar to the Southeast Asian and South Pacific cultures. The [[Amami Islands]] seem to be the islands with the most mainland Japanese influence.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=38}} However, both north and south Ryukyus were culturally unified in the 10th century.<ref name="TakeshiroSato2014"/>

The finding of ancient Chinese [[knife money]] near [[Naha]] in Okinawa indicates a probable contact with the ancient Chinese state [[Yan (state)|Yan]] as early as the 3rd century BCE. According to the {{transliteration|zh|[[Classic of Mountains and Seas|Shan Hai Jing]]}}, the Yan had relations with the [[Wa (name of Japan)|Wa]] ('dwarf', 'short') people living southeast of Korea, who could be related to both the mainland Japanese or Ryukyuans.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}} The futile search for the elixir of immortality by [[Qin Shi Huang]], the founder of the [[Qin dynasty]] (221–206 BCE), in which the emperor tried to cooperate with "happy immortals" who dwelt on the islands, could be related to both Japan and Ryukyu Islands.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}} There is a lack of evidence that the missions by the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE–220 CE) reached the islands; however, as the Japanese did reach Han's [[Luoyang|capital]], notes from 57 CE do mention a general practice of tattooing among the people of "hundred kingdoms" in the eastern islands, a practice which was widespread and survived only among the Okinawan's women, Ainu in Hokkaido, and [[Atayal people]] in Taiwan.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}} [[Cao Wei]] (220–265) and Han dynasty records show that the inhabitants of western and southern Japan and Okinawa had a lot in common regarding political-social institutions until the 2nd century CE – they were of small stature, bred [[oxen]] and [[swine]], and were ruled by women, with a special influence of women sorceresses, related to the Ryukyuan [[Noro (priestess)|Noro]] priestesses which were closely associated with local political power until the 20th century, as well as with the Ryukyuan swine economy culture until World War II. It is suggested that the mention of a specific sorceress Pimeku, her death and successive conflict, is related to some socio-political challenges of the ancient [[Matriarchy|matriarchal system]].{{sfn|Kerr|2000}}

The first certain mention of the islands and its people by the Chinese and Japanese is dated in the 7th century. [[Emperor Yang of Sui]], due to previous tradition, between 607–608 held expeditions in search of the "Land of Happy Immortals". As the Chinese envoy and the islanders linguistically could not understand each other, and the islanders did not want to accept the Sui rule and suzerainty, the Chinese envoy took many captives back to the court. The islands, by the Chinese named Liuqiu ([[Middle Chinese]]: {{transliteration|ltc|Lɨuɡɨu}}), would be pronounced by the Japanese as Ryukyu. However, when the Japanese diplomat [[Ono no Imoko]] arrived at the Chinese capital he noted that the captives probably arrived from the island of [[Yakushima|Yaku]] south of Kyushu. In 616 the Japanese annals for the first time mention the "Southern Islands people", and for the half-century were noted some intruders from Yaku and [[Tanu Province|Tanu]]. According to the {{transliteration|ja|[[Shoku Nihongi]]}}, in 698 a small force dispatched by Japanese government successfully claimed the [[Tanegashima|Tane-jima]], Yakushima, [[Amami Islands|Amami]], [[Tokunoshima]] and other islands.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}} The {{transliteration|ja|Shoku Nihongi}} recorded that the [[Hayato people]] in southern Kyushu still had female chieftains in the early 8th century. In 699 are mentioned islands Amami and [[Tokara Islands|Tokara]], in 714 Shingaki and [[Kume Island|Kume]], in 720 some 232 persons who had submitted to the Japanese capital Nara, and at last Okinawa in 753. Nevertheless the mention or authority, over the centuries the Japanese influence spread slowly among the communities.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}}

===Gusuku period===
[[File:Nakijin Castle 20221229-2.jpg|thumb|right|The ''[[gusuku]]'' fortification are on the [[Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom of Ryukyu]] UNESCO's list.]]
The lack of written record resulted with later, 17th century royal tales both under Chinese and Japanese influence, which were efforts by local chieftains to explain the "[[divine right of kings|divine right]]" of their royal authority, as well the then-political interests of Tokugawa ''shōguns'' from [[Minamoto clan]] who wanted to legitimize Japanese domination over Okinawa. The tradition states that the founder of the [[Tenson dynasty]] was a descendant of goddess [[Amamikyu]], and the dynasty ruled 17,000 years and had 25 kings i.e. chieftains. However, the 24th throne was usurped from one of Tenson's descendants by a man named Riyu, who was defeated in revolt led by [[Shunten]] (1187–1237), lord of [[Urasoe Castle|Urasoe]]. Shunten's parental origin is a matter of debate, according to 17th century romantic tales he was a son of a local Okinawan chief's (''[[Aji (Ryukyu)|anji]]'') daughter and some Japanese adventurer, usually considered [[Minamoto no Tametomo]], while historical and archeological-traditional evidence indicate men from the defeated [[Taira clan]] who fled Minamoto's clan vengeance. The [[Shunten dynasty]] made two additional chieftains, [[Shunbajunki]] (1237–1248) and [[Gihon (Ryukyu)|Gihon]] (1248–1259). As Gihon abdicated, his [[sessei]] [[Eiso (Ryukyu)|Eiso]] (1260–1299), who claimed Tenson's descent, founded the [[List of monarchs of the Ryukyu Islands#Eiso dynasty|Eiso dynasty]].{{sfn|Kerr|2000}}

During the [[History of the Ryukyu Islands#Gusuku period|Gusuku period]] (c. 1187–1314), with recent chronology dated from c. 900–950 CE,{{sfn|Pellard|2015|p=21}}{{sfn|Robbeets|2015|p=28}} Okinawans made significant political, social and economical growth. As the center of power moved away from the seashore to inland, the period is named after many ''[[gusuku]]'', castle-like fortifications which were built in higher places.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=38}} This period is also notable, compared to mainland Japan, for fairly late introduction of agricultural production of rice, wheat, [[millet]] and the overseas trading of these goods,{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=38}}<ref name="Hammer2006"/><ref name="Shinoda2013"/> as well during Shubanjunki's rule the introduction of Japanese [[kana]] writing system in its older and simple phonetic form.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}} After the years of famine and epidemic during the Gihon's rule, Eiso introduced regular taxation system (of weapons, grains and cloth) in 1264 and as the government gained strength, the control extended from Okinawa toward the islands of Kume, Kerama, Iheya, and Amami Ōshima (1266). Between 1272 and 1274, as the [[Mongol invasions of Japan]] began, Okinawa on two occasions rejected the Mongols' authority demands. To Eiso's reign period is also ascribed the introduction of [[Buddhism]] into Okinawa.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}}

===Sanzan period===
{{Main|Sanzan period|Ryukyuan missions to Imperial China}}
[[File:Ryukyu Kingdoms of Sanzan era.jpg|thumb|right|Map of [[Okinawa Island]], showing the [[Sanzan period]] polities]]
During the rule of Eiso's great-grandson, [[Tamagusuku]] (1314–1336), Okinawa became divided into three [[polities]] and began the so-called [[Sanzan period]] (1314–1429). The north and largest [[Hokuzan]] polity was the poorest due to forest and mountainous terrain (in which isolation was an advantage), with primitive farming and fishing. The central [[Chūzan]] polity was the most advantaged due to its developed castle [[town]]s and harbor facilities. The south [[Nanzan]] polity was the smallest, but endured because of good castle positions and sea merchants.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}}

In this period, another rapid economical, social and cultural development of Ryukyu began as the polities had developed formal trade relations with Japan, Korea and China. During the [[Satto]]'s reign, Chūzan made [[Imperial Chinese tributary system|tributary relations]] with China's [[Ming dynasty]] in 1374 as the [[Hongwu Emperor]] sent envoys in 1372 to Okinawa. In the next two decades Chūzan made nine [[Ryukyuan missions to Imperial China|official missions]] to the Chinese capital, and the formal relations between them endured until 1872 (see [[Imperial Chinese missions to the Ryukyu Kingdom]]).{{sfn|Kerr|2000}}{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=39}} Despite significant Chinese economical, cultural and political influence, the polities continued to maintain strong [[autonomy]].{{sfn|Gluck|2008|p=939}}{{sfn|Loo|2014|p=1}} In 1392, all three polities began to send extensive [[Ryukyuan missions to Joseon|missions]] to the Korean [[Joseon]] kingdom. In 1403, Chūzan made formal relations with the Japanese [[Ashikaga shogunate]], and an [[embassy]] was sent to [[Thailand]] in 1409.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}} The contacts with Siam continued even in 1425, and were newly made with places like [[Palembang]] in 1428, [[Java]] in 1430, [[Malacca]] and [[Sumatra]] in 1463.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=39}}

As in 1371, China initiated its maritime prohibition policy ([[Haijin]]) to Japan, Ryukyu gained a lot from its position as [[intermediary]] in the trade between Japan and China. They shipped horses, [[sulphur]] and seashells to China, from China brought ceramics, copper, and iron, from southeast Asian countries bought tin, ivory, spices (pepper), wood ([[sappanwood]]), which they sold to Japan, Korea or China, as well as transporting Chinese goods to [[Hakata Bay]] from where swords, silver and gold were brought.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=42}}{{sfn|Pellard|2015|p=28}}

In 1392, 36 Chinese families from [[Fujian]] were invited by the chieftain of Okinawa Island's central polity (Chūzan) to settle near the port of [[Naha]] and to serve as diplomats, interpreters, and government officials.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=39}} Some consider that many Ryukyuan officials were descended from these Chinese immigrants, being born in China or having Chinese grandfathers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ka6jNJcX_ygC&q=ryukyu+asked+for+thirty+six+families+fujian&pg=PA145|title=The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty |author=Shih-shan Henry Tsai|year=1996|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-2687-6|page=145|access-date=4 February 2011}}</ref> They assisted the Ryukyuans in advancing their technology and diplomatic relations.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ga-5mPOr2-wC&q=ryukyu+asked+for+thirty+six+families+fujian&pg=PR13 |title=The East Asian maritime world 1400–1800: its fabrics of power and dynamics of exchanges|author=Angela Schottenhammer|year=2007|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-05474-4|page=xiii|access-date=4 February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ddcV_cGegX4C&q=ryukyu+asked+for+thirty+six+families+fujian&pg=PA125 |title=Maritime sector, institutions, and sea power of premodern China|author=Gang Deng|year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-30712-6 |page=125|access-date=4 February 2011}}</ref> From the same year onward Ryukyu was allowed to send official students to China i.e. [[Guozijian]].{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=41}} The tributary relationship with China later became a basis of the 19th century Sino-Japanese disputes about the claims of Okinawa.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}}

===Ryukyu Kingdom===
{{Main|Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryukyuan missions to Edo}}
[[File:Naha Shuri Castle50s3s4500.jpg|thumb|right|The castle town and [[Ryukyu Kingdom]]'s capital [[Shuri Castle]]]]
Between 1416 and 1429, Chūzan chieftain [[Shō Hashi]] successfully unified the principalities into the [[Ryukyuan Kingdom]] (1429–1879) with the [[castle town]] [[Shuri, Okinawa|Shuri]] as royal capital, founded the [[List of monarchs of the Ryukyu Islands#The First Shō dynasty|First Shō dynasty]], and the island continued to prosper through maritime trade, especially tributary relations with the Ming dynasty.<ref name="MasamiIto2009"/> The period of [[Shō Shin]]'s (1477–1526) rule, descendant from the [[List of monarchs of the Ryukyu Islands#The First Shō dynasty|Second Shō dynasty]], is notable for peace and relative prosperity, peak in overseas trade, as well as expansion of the kingdom's firm control to [[Kikaijima]], [[Miyako-jima]] and [[Yaeyama Islands]] (1465–1524),{{sfn|Kerr|2000|p=115}} while during [[Shō Sei]] (1526–1555) to [[Amami Ōshima]] (1537).{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=42}}

After the [[Kyūshū Campaign]] (1586–1587) by [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], his assistant [[Kamei Korenori]], who was interested in southern trade, wanted to be rewarded with the Ryukyu Islands. A paper [[Hand fan|fan]] found during the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)]] mentioning a title "Kamei, Lord of Ryukyu", reveals that Hideyoshi at least nominally offered the post although he had no legitimate claim upon the islands. In 1591, Kamei ventured with a force to reclaim the islands, but the [[Shimazu clan]] stopped him as they guarded their special relationship with the Ryukyu kingdom. Hideyoshi was not very concerned about the quarrel because the invasion of Korea was more important in his mind.{{sfn|Kerr|2000|pp=151–152}} As the Ming's influence weakened due to disorder in China, Japanese established posts in Southeast Asia, and the Europeans (Spanish and Portuguese) arrived, the kingdom's overseas trade began to decline.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=43}}<ref name="MasamiIto2009"/>

In the early 17th century during the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] (1603–1867), the first ''[[shōgun]]'' [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] intended to subject the kingdom to enable intermediary trade with China, and in 1603 ordered the Ryukyuan king to pay his respect to the shogunate. As the king did not react, with the instruction of the ''shōgun'', the [[Satsuma Domain|Satsuma feudal domain]] of the Shimazu clan in [[Kyūshū]] incorporated some of kingdom's territory during the 1609 [[Invasion of Ryukyu]]. They nominally let a certain level of autonomy and independence to the kingdom due to Ming's prohibition of trade with the shogunate, but forbade them trade with other countries except China. The Amami Islands became part of Shimazu's territory, taxes were imposed, making them subordinate in the relations between Japan and China.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}}{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|pp=43–45}}{{sfn|Loo|2014|p=3}} Until the invasion, the Shimazu clan lords for four centuries had a vague title of the "Lords of the Twelve Southern Islands" or "Southern Islands", although initially meaning the near Kyushu islands, then covering all the Ryukyu Islands. Later in the 1870s this was used as a "justification" of Japan's sovereignty.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}} From 1609 the [[Ryukyuan missions to Edo]] started which lasted until 1850.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=45}}

During the rule of kings [[Shō Shitsu]] (1648–1668) and [[Shō Tei]] (1669–1709) i.e. [[sessei]] [[Shō Shōken]] (1666–1673) were recovered the internal social and economical stability with many laws about government organisation, and affairs like sugarcane production, and tax system with emphasis on agricultural production. The production was encouraged because Satsuma's annual tax deprived Ryukyu's internal resources. Although the production of sweet potatoes and sugar industry grew, the peasants were not allowed to enlarge their fields. The agricultural reforms especially continued under king [[Shō Kei]] (1713–1752) and his [[sanshikan]] advisor [[Sai On]] (1728–1752) whose ''Nomucho'' (Directory of Agricultural Affairs) from 1743 became the basis of the agricultural administration until the 19th century.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|pp=46–50}} In the Sakishima Islands great part of the tax was paid in textiles made of ramie.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|pp=51–52}} The relations with the [[Qing dynasty]] improved after their second mission when the first Ryukyuan official students were sent to China in 1688.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|pp=52–53}}

In the first half of the 19th century, French politicians like [[Jean-Baptiste Cécille]] unsuccessfully tried to conclude a French trade treaty with Ryukyu,{{sfn|Smits|2004|p=228}} with only a promise by Shuri government about the admission of Christian missionaries. However, due to extreme measures in teaching, [[Bernard Jean Bettelheim]]'s propagation of [[Protestantism]] between 1846–1854 was obscured by the government.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|pp=52–53}}

===Meiji period===
{{Main|Ryukyu Domain|Okinawa Prefecture|Ryukyu independence movement}}
[[File:Five men wearing Ryukyuan Dress.JPG|thumb|right|Five Ryukyuan men, [[Meiji period]]]]
During the [[Meiji period]] (1868–1912) the {{lang|ja-Latn|"Ryukyu shobun"}} process began,{{sfn|Loo|2014|p=2}} according to which the Ryukyuan Kingdom came under the jurisdiction of [[Kagoshima Prefecture]] in 1871, encompassing the southern tip of [[Kyushu]] and the Ryukyuan islands to its south; this created the [[Ryukyu Domain]] (1872–1879) of Meiji-era Japan. This method of gradual integration was designed to avoid both Ryukyuan and Chinese protests, with the ruling [[Shuri Castle|Shuri government]] unaware of the significance of these developments, including Japan's decision to grant political representation to the Ryukyuan islanders involved in the [[Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}}

In 1875, the Ryukyuans were forced to terminate their tributary relations with China, against their preference for a state of dual allegiance to both China and Japan, something a then-weakened China was unable to stop. A proposal by the 18th U.S. President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] for a sovereign Okinawa and the division of the other islands between China and Japan was rejected, with a last-minute decision by the Chinese government not to ratify the agreement rendering it null. On three occasions between 1875 and 1879, the last Ryukyuan King, [[Shō Tai]], refused to submit to the demands placed upon his people, and in 1879, his domain was formally abolished and established as [[Okinawa Prefecture]], forcing his move to Tokyo with the reduced status of Viscount.{{sfn|Smits|2004|pp=228–230}}{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|pp=56–57}}{{sfn|Caprio|2014|pp=61–62}}{{sfn|Loo|2014|pp=1, 26–32}}

Members of the Ryukyuan aristocratic classes such as [[Kōchi Chōjō]] and [[Rin Seikō]] continued to resist annexation for almost two decades;{{sfn|Obermiller|2006|pp=23–24}} however, following the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] (1894–1895), both Chinese and Ryukyuan interest in sovereignty faded as China renounced its claims to the island.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=59}}{{sfn|Dubinsky|Davies|2013|p=12}}{{sfn|Loo|2014|pp=32–36}} Many historians criticise Meiji-era Japan's characterisation of the process as being considered a relatively simple administrative change, rather than the creation of Japan's first colony and the beginning of its "inner colonialism".{{sfn|Smits|2004|p=228}}{{sfn|Gluck|2008|p=938}}

During the Meiji period, as with the [[Ainu people]] of Hokkaido, the Ryukyuans had their own culture, religion, traditions and language suppressed by the Meiji government in the face of forced assimilation.<ref name="MasamiIto2009"/>{{sfn|Rabson|2008|p=4}}{{sfn|Smits|2004|pp=233–245}} From the 1880s onwards, schools forbade the display of Ryukyuan styles of dress, hairstyles and other visual aspects, considering them to be backwards and inferior, with students forced to wear Japanese clothing and to assimilate into Japanese culture.{{sfn|Caprio|2014|p=64}} Indoctrination into a militaristic and Emperor-centred ideology for children began from the age of beginning elementary school onwards;{{sfn|Rabson|2008|p=5}} the ultimate goal of this education was a total unification of the Ryukyuans into the [[Yamato people]], embodying the ideal of ethnic purity,{{sfn|Dubinsky|Davies|2013|p=3}} with contemporary ''Nihonjiron'' literature for the time ignoring Japan's minorities{{sfn|Liddicoat|2013|p=54}}). Ryukyuans often faced prejudice, humiliation in the workplace and ethnic discrimination,{{sfn|Caprio|2014|pp=67–70}}{{sfn|Christy|2004|pp=173–185}} with the Ryukyuan elite divided into factions either in support of or in opposition to assimilation.{{sfn|Rabson|2008|p=4}} Negative stereotypes and discrimination were common against the Ryukyuans in the Japanese society.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apjjf.org/2020/20/Zohar.html|title=
Introduction: Race and Empire in Meiji Japan|first=Ayelet|last=Zohar|publisher=The Asia-Pacific Journal|date=15 October 2020|accessdate=12 November 2023}}</ref>

Around and especially after the Japanese annexation of Taiwan in 1895, Japan's developmental focus shifted away from Okinawa, resulting in a period of famine known as {{lang|ja-Latn|"Sotetsu-jigoku"}} ("[[Cycad]] hell"). Between 1920 and 1921, a fall in sugar prices, as well as the transfer of Japan's sugar production to Taiwan, led to Ryukyu being the poorest prefecture, despite having the heaviest taxation burden; the drop in sugar prices would continue into 1931, further worsening the situation.{{sfn|Smits|2004|p=233}} As a result of the ensuing economic crisis, many people were forced to either find work in Japan (often [[Osaka]] and [[Kobe]]) or abroad in Taiwan.{{sfn|Christy|2004|pp=177, 180–182}}{{sfn|Obermiller|2006|p=86}} By 1935, roughly 15% of the population had emigrated.{{sfn|Nakasone|2002|p=17}}

===WWII and post-war history===
During [[World War II]] and battles like the [[Battle of Okinawa]] (1945), approximately 150,000 civilians (1/3 of the population) were killed in Okinawa alone.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=63}}{{sfn|Inoue|2017|p=4}} After the war, the Ryukyu Islands were occupied by the [[United States Military Government of the Ryukyu Islands]] (1945–1950), but the U.S. maintained control even after the 1951 [[Treaty of San Francisco]], which went into effect on 28 April 1952, as the USMMGR was replaced by the [[United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands]] (1950–1972). During this period the U.S. military requisitioned private land for the building of their facilities, with the former owners put into refugee camps, and its personnel committed thousands of crimes against the civilians.{{vague|reason=Which specific crimes?|date=July 2020}}{{sfn|Inoue|2017|pp=XIII–XV}} Only twenty years later, on 15 May 1972, Okinawa and nearby islands were returned to Japan.<ref name="MasamiIto2009"/> Whereas the Japanese had enjoyed political freedom and economic prosperity in the post-war years, the facilities, used for the purposes of Japanese regional security against the [[Communism|communist]] [[Red Scare|threat]], had a negative economic impact on the Islands, leading to many Ryukyuans feeling cheated, some considering the facilities a national disgrace.{{sfn|Kerr|2000}}{{sfn|Inoue|2017|pp=XIII–XIV, 4–5}} Since 1972 there have been extensive plans to bring Okinawa's economy up to the national level, as well continued support for the local culture and a revival of traditional arts started by the USCAR.{{sfn|Hendrickx|2007|p=64}}{{sfn|Inoue|2017|pp=48–49, 79}}

Okinawa comprises just 0.6% of Japan's total land mass, yet about 75% of all U.S. military installations stationed in Japan are assigned to bases in Okinawa.{{sfn|Rabson|2008|p=2}}{{sfn|Inoue|2017|p=2}} The presence of the military remains a sensitive issue in local politics.<ref name="MasamiIto2009"/> Negative feelings toward the mainland [[Government of Japan|Government]], [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] (especially [[Hirohito]] due to his involvement in the sacrifice of Okinawa and later military occupation), and [[United States Armed Forces|U.S. military]] ([[United States Forces Japan|USFJ]], [[Special Action Committee on Okinawa|SACO]]) have often caused open criticism and protests,{{sfn|Rabson|2008|pp=11, 17}} for example by 85,000 people in 1995 after the U.S. military [[1995 Okinawa rape incident|rape incident]],{{sfn|Inoue|2017|p=1}} and by 110,000 people in 2007 due to the Japanese [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology|Ministry of Education]]'s textbook revisions (see [[Battle of Okinawa#MEXT textbook controversy|MEXT controversy]]) which critics say downplays the involvement of the Japanese military in the forced mass suicide of the civilians during the Battle of Okinawa.{{sfn|Rabson|2008|p=1}}{{sfn|Inoue|2017|p=XXVII}} For many years the Emperors avoided visiting Okinawa, with the first ever in history done by [[Akihito]] in 1993,<ref name="Sanger">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/04/25/world/a-still-bitter-okinawa-greets-the-emperor-coolly.html |title=A Still-Bitter Okinawa Greets the Emperor Coolly |author=David E. Sanger |date=25 April 1993 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=8 February 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Rabson|2008|p=13}} since it was assumed that his visits would likely cause uproar, as in July 1975 when Akihito as a crown prince visited Okinawa and a firebomb was thrown at him,<ref name="Sanger"/>{{sfn|Rabson|2008|pp=11–13}} although these tensions have eased in recent years.{{sfn|Rabson|2008|p=14}} Discrimination against Okinawans both past and present on the part of the mainland Japanese is the cause of their smoldering resentment against the government.<ref>{{citation|last=Tanji|first=Miyume|title=Myth, Protest and Struggle in Okinawa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLUpgYAwtl4C |year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-21760-1}}</ref> There is a small post-war [[Ryukyu independence movement]], but there are also Okinawans who wish to be assimilated with the mainland.<ref name="MasamiIto2009"/> A poll in 2017 by the Okinawa Times, Asahi Shimbun and Ryukyusu Asahi Broadcasting Corporation (QAB) jointly conducted prefectural public opinion surveys for voters in the prefecture. 82% of Okinawa citizens chose "I'm glad that Okinawa has returned as a Japanese prefecture". It was 90% for respondents of the ages of 18 to 29, 86% for those in their 30s, 84% for those aged 40–59, 72% for respondents in their 60s, 74% for those over the age of 70.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/97097 |script-title=ja:【日本に復帰してよかった？】 沖縄82％が肯定、若い世代ほど高く 県民意識調査 |language=ja |date=12 May 2017 |work=[[Okinawa Times]]}}</ref>