Editing Science policy (section)

== By country ==

Most developed countries usually have a specific national body overseeing national science (including technology and innovation) policy. Many developing countries follow the same fashion.  Many governments of [[developed country|developed countries]] provide considerable funds (primarily to universities) for scientific research (in fields such as [[physics]] and [[geology]]) as well as social science research (in fields such as [[economics]] and [[history]]). Much of this is not intended to provide concrete results that may be commercialisable, although research in scientific fields may lead to results that have such potential. Most university research is aimed at gaining publication in [[peer review]]ed [[academic journal]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vuong|first1=Quan-Hoang|date=2020|title=Reform retractions to make them more transparent |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-01694-x|journal=Nature|volume=582|issue=7811|pages=149|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-01694-x|bibcode=2020Natur.582..149V|s2cid=219529301}}</ref>

A funding body is an organisation that provides [[research funding]] in the form of [[research grant]]s or [[scholarship]]s.  Research councils are funding bodies that are government-funded agencies engaged in the support of research in different disciplines and postgraduate funding.  Funding from research councils is typically competitive. As a general rule, more funding is available in science and engineering disciplines than in the arts and social sciences.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.prospects.ac.uk/cms/ShowPage/Home_page/Funding_my_further_study/Public_funding_bodies/p!ejclk | title = Public funding bodies | work = Graduate Prospects | access-date = 2007-02-19 }}</ref>

===Australia===
In [[Australia]], the two main research councils are the [[Australian Research Council]] and the [[National Health and Medical Research Council]].

===Canada===
In [[Canada]], the three main research councils ("Tri-Council") are the [[Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council]] (SSHRC) the [[Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council]] (NSERC) and the [[Canadian Institutes of Health Research]] (CIHR). Additional research funding agencies include the [[Canada Foundation for Innovation]], [[Genome Canada]], [[Sustainable Development Technology Canada]], [[Mitacs]] and several Tri-Council supported [[Networks of Centres of Excellence]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nce.gc.ca/ |title=Home |website=nce.gc.ca}}</ref>

===Brazil===

In Brazil, two important research agencies are the [[National Council for Scientific and Technological Development]] (CNPq, Portuguese: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico), an organization of the Brazilian federal government under the Ministry of Science and Technology, and [[São Paulo Research Foundation]] (FAPESP, Portuguese: Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo), a public foundation located in the state of São Paulo, Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fapesp.br/en/|title = FAPESP - Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo}}</ref>

===European Union===
The science policy of the [[European Union]] is carried out through the [[European Research Area]], a system which integrates the scientific resources of member nations and acts as a "common market" for research and innovation. The European Union's executive body, the [[European Commission]], has a [[Directorate-General for Research (European Commission)|Directorate-General for Research]], which is responsible for the Union's science policy. In addition, the [[Joint Research Centre]] provides independent scientific and technical advice to the European Commission and Member States of the [[European Union]] (EU) in support of EU policies.<ref name="a1370">{{cite web | url=http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc/index.cfm?id=1370 | title=EU Science Hub - European Commission| date=12 March 2024}}</ref>  There is also the recently established [[European Research Council]], the first European Union [[Funding of science|funding body]] set up to support investigator-driven research.

There are also European science agencies that operate independently of the European Union, such as the [[European Science Foundation]], [[European Space Agency]], and the [[European Higher Education Area]], created by the [[Bologna process]].

The [[European environmental research and innovation policy]] addresses global challenges of pivotal importance for the well-being of European citizens within the context of sustainable development and environmental protection. Research and innovation in Europe is financially supported by the programme [[Horizon 2020]], which is also open to participation worldwide.<ref>See Horizon 2020 – the EU's new research and innovation programme http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-13-1085_en.htm</ref>

=== Germany ===
German research funding agencies include the [[Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft]], which covers both [[science]] and [[humanities]].

=== India ===
Research funding by the Government of India comes from a number of sources.  For basic science and technology research, these include the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Department of Science and Technology (DST), and University Grants Commission (UGC).  For medical research, these include the Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR), CSIR, DST and Department of Biotechnology (DBT).  For applied research, these include the CSIR, DBT and Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC).

Other funding authorities are the Defence Research Development Organisation (DRDO), the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), the Department of Ocean Development (DOD), the Indian Council for Social Science Research (ICSSR), and the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF) etc.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unom.ac.in/gcl-opac/Research%20funding.htm#Indian%20Research%20Funding%20Agencies |title=Interdisciplinary |website=www.unom.ac.in |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100829220203/http://www.unom.ac.in/gcl-opac/Research%20funding.htm |archive-date=2010-08-29}}</ref>

=== Ireland ===
Irish funding councils include the Irish Research Council (IRC) and the [[Science Foundation Ireland]]. The prior [[IRCSET|Irish Research Council for Science, Engineering and Technology]] (IRCSET) and the Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences (IRCHSS) were merged to form the IRC in March 2012.<ref name="IRC">{{cite web | url=http://www.research.ie/aboutus/about-irc | title=About Us | publisher=Irish Research Council | access-date=16 January 2014}}</ref>

=== The Netherlands ===
Dutch research funding agencies include [[Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek]] (NWO) [http://nwo.nl/] and [[Agentschap NL]] [http://www.agentschapnl.nl/]. In 2016, the Netherlands began trials for [[Self-Organized Funding Allocation]] (SOFA), a novel method of distributing research funds which proponents believe may have advantages compared to the grant system.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Coelho |first1=Andre |title=NETHERLANDS: A radical new way do fund science {{!}} BIEN |date=16 May 2017 |url=https://basicincome.org/news/2017/05/netherlands-radical-new-way-fund-science/ |access-date=2 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bollen |first1=Johan |title=Who would you share your funding with? |journal=Nature |date=8 August 2018 |volume=560 |issue=7717 |pages=143 |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-05887-3 |pmid=30089925 |bibcode=2018Natur.560..143B |language=EN|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Pakistan ===
The Government of Pakistan has mandated that a certain percentage of gross revenue generated by all telecom service providers be allocated to development and research of information and communication technologies. The [[National ICT R&D Fund (Pakistan)|National ICT R&D Fund]] was established in January 2007.

===Russia===
Under the Soviet Union, much research was routinely [[Suppressed research in the Soviet Union|suppressed]].
Now science in Russia is supported by state and private funds. From the state: the Russian Humanitarian Scientific Foundation (http://www.rfh.ru), the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (www.rfbr.ru), the Russian Science Foundation (http://rscf.ru)

=== Sri Lanka ===
Science and Technology Policy Research Division (STPRD) of [[National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka|the National Science Foundation (NSF)]], which was established as a statutory body, through an Act of the [[Parliament of Sri Lanka]], is engaged in providing evidence based policy recommendations for policy formulation on science, technology and other fields ensuring the research/innovation eco-system of the country. Accordingly, the Division undertake science, technology and innovation policy research in the areas of importance to make recommendations for policy formulation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Science & Technology Policy Research Division |url=http://www.nsf.ac.lk/index.php/divisions/scientific-divisions/science-technology-policy-research-division |access-date=2024-05-24 |website=National Science Foundation Sri Lanka |language=en-gb}}</ref>

Besides [http://www.nsf.ac.lk/index.php NSF], the national experts, researchers, public universities and non-governmental bodies like [https://nassl.org/ National Academy of Sciences of Sri Lanka (NASSL)], also provides expert advice on policy matters to the Government.

=== Switzerland ===
Swiss research funding agencies include the [[Swiss National Science Foundation]] (SNSF), the innovation promotion agency CTI (CTI/KTI), Ressortforschung des Bundes [http://www.ressortforschung.admin.ch/], and Eidgenössische Stiftungsaufsicht [http://www.edi.admin.ch/esv/].

===United Kingdom===
{{main|Research Councils UK}}

In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Haldane principle]], that decisions about what to spend research funds on should be made by researchers rather than politicians, is still influential in research policy. There are several university departments with a focus on science policy, such as the [[Science Policy Research Unit]]. There are seven grant-awarding [[Research Councils UK|Research Councils]]:
* [[Arts and Humanities Research Council]] (AHRC)
* [[Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council]] (BBSRC)
* [[Economic and Social Research Council]] (ESRC)
* [[Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council]] (EPSRC)
* [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] (MRC)
* [[Natural Environment Research Council]] (NERC)
* [[Science and Technology Facilities Council]] (STFC)

===United States===
{{main|Science policy of the United States}}

The [[United States]] has a long history of government support for science and technology.  Science policy in the United States is the responsibility of many organizations throughout the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]].  Much of the large-scale policy is made through the legislative [[United States budget process|budget process]] of enacting the yearly [[United States federal budget|federal budget]].  Further decisions are made by the various federal agencies which spend the funds allocated by Congress, either on in-house research or by granting funds to outside organizations and researchers.

Research funding agencies in the United States are spread among many different departments, which include:
* Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ([[DARPA]])
* [[United States Department of Energy]] Office of Science
* [[National Institutes of Health]]: biomedical research
* [[National Science Foundation]]: fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering.
* [[Office of Naval Research]]