Editing Springbok (section)

== Ecology and behaviour ==
[[File:Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis hofmeyri) in the road.jpg|thumb|A herd on the road<br />[[Etosha National Park]], [[Namibia]]]]
Springbok are mainly active around dawn and dusk. Activity is influenced by weather; springbok can feed at night in hot weather, and at midday in colder months. They rest in the shade of trees or bushes, and often bed down in the open when weather is cooler.<ref name=Skinner1996>{{cite book | last1= Skinner |first1=J.D. |last2=Louw |first2=G.N. | year = 1996 | title = The Springbok ''Antidorcas marsupialis'' (Zimmerman 1780) (Transvaal Museum Monographs) | volume = 10 | isbn=978-0-907990-16-1 | pages = 1–50 |publisher=Transvaal Museum |hdl=10499/AJ10123 | url = http://hdl.handle.net/10499/AJ10123}}{{open access}}</ref>

The social structure of the springbok is similar to that of [[Thomson's gazelle]]. Mixed-sex herds or [[harem (zoology)|harem]]s have a roughly 3:1 sex ratio; bachelor individuals are also observed.<ref name=Bigalke1970>{{cite journal | last = Bigalke | first = R.C. | year = 1970 | title = Observations of springbok populations | journal = [[African Zoology|Zoologica Africana]] | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 59–70 | doi=10.1080/00445096.1970.11447381| hdl = 10499/AJ19336 | doi-access = free }} {{open access}}</ref> In the mating season, males generally form herds and wander in search of mates. Females live with their offspring in herds, that very rarely include [[Dominance (ethology)|dominant]] males. [[territory (animal)|Territorial]] males round up female herds that enter their territories and keep out the bachelors; mothers and juveniles may gather in nursery herds separate from harem and bachelor herds. After weaning, female juveniles stay with their mothers until the birth of their next calves, while males join bachelor groups.<ref name=kingdon>{{cite book|last1=Kingdon|first1=J.|author-link=Jonathan Kingdon|title=The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals|date=2015|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|location=London|isbn=978-1-4729-1236-7|pages=571–572|edition=2nd}}</ref>

A study of vigilance behaviour of herds revealed that individuals on the borders of herds tend to be more cautious, and vigilance decreases with group size. Group size and distance from roads and bushes were found to have major influence on vigilance, more among the grazing springbok than among their browsing counterparts. Adults were found to be more vigilant than juveniles, and males more vigilant than females. Springbok passing through bushes tend to be more vulnerable to predator attacks as they cannot be easily alerted, and predators usually conceal themselves in bushes.<ref name=burger>{{cite journal|last1=Burger|first1=J.|last2=Safina|first2=C.|last3=Gochfeld|first3=M.|title=Factors affecting vigilance in springbok: importance of vegetative cover, location in herd, and herd size|journal=[[Acta Ethologica]]|year=2000|volume=2|issue=2|pages=97–104|doi=10.1007/s102119900013|s2cid=11400003}}</ref> Another study calculated that the time spent in vigilance by springbok on the edges of herds is roughly double that spent by those in the centre and the open. Springbok were found to be more cautious in the late morning than at dawn or in the afternoon, and more at night than in the daytime. Rates and methods of vigilance were found to vary with the aim of lowering risk from predators.<ref name=ritter2>{{cite journal|last1=Bednekoff|first1=P.A.|last2=Ritter|first2=R.|title=Vigilance in Nxai Pan springbok, ''Antidorcas marsupialis''|journal=[[Behaviour (journal)|Behaviour]]|year=1994|volume=129|issue=1|pages=1–11|doi=10.1163/156853994X00325}}</ref>
[[File:Locking horns - Springbuck.jpg|left|thumbnail|Springbok locking horns in a fight]]

During the [[rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]], males establish territories, ranging from {{convert|10|to|70|ha}},<ref name=Cain2004/> which they [[territorial marking|mark]] by urinating and depositing large piles of dung.<ref name=Bigalke1972/> Males in neighbouring territories frequently fight for access to females, which they do by twisting and levering at each other with their horns, interspersed with stabbing attacks. Females roam the territories of different males. Outside of the rut, mixed-sex herds can range from as few as three to as many as 180 individuals, while all-male bachelor herds are of typically no more than 50 individuals. Harem and nursery herds are much smaller, typically including no more than 10 individuals.<ref name=Cain2004/>
[[File:Springbok pronk.jpg|thumb|A [[pronking]] springbok]]
In earlier times, when large populations of springbok roamed the [[Kalahari Desert]] and [[Karoo]], millions of migrating springbok formed herds hundreds of kilometres long that could take several days to pass a town.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Great Hunters | year=1974 | last=Haresnape |first=G.|isbn=978-0-360-00232-6|publisher=[[Purnell and Sons]]}}</ref> These mass treks, known as ''trekbokking'' in Afrikaans, took place during long periods of drought. Herds could efficiently retrace their paths to their territories after long migrations.<ref name=kingdon/> ''Trekbokking'' is still observed occasionally in [[Botswana]], though on a much smaller scale than earlier.<ref name=estes/><ref name=child>{{cite journal|last1=Child|first1=G.|last2=Le Riche|first2=J.D.|title=Recent springbok treks (mass movements) in southwestern Botswana|journal=Mammalia|year=1969|volume=33|issue=3|pages=499–504|doi=10.1515/mamm.1969.33.3.499|s2cid=83613809}}</ref>

Springbok often go into bouts of repeated high leaps of up to {{cvt|2|m}} into the air – a practice known as [[pronking]] (derived from the Afrikaans ''pronk'', "to show off") or stotting.<ref name=Cain2004/> In pronking, the springbok performs multiple leaps into the air in a stiff-legged posture, with the back bowed and the white flap lifted. When the male shows off his strength to attract a mate, or to ward off predators, he starts off in a stiff-legged trot, leaping into the air with an arched back every few paces and lifting the flap along his back. Lifting the flap causes the long white hairs under the tail to stand up in a conspicuous fan shape, which in turn emits a strong scent of sweat.<ref name=Bigalke1972>{{cite journal | last= Bigalke |first= R.C. | year = 1972 | title = Observations on the behaviour and feeding habits of the springbok ''Antidorcas marsupialis'' | journal = [[African Zoology|Zoologica Africana]] | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 333–359 | doi=10.1080/00445096.1972.11447448|hdl= 10499/AJ19390 | doi-access = free }} {{open access}}</ref> Although the exact cause of this behaviour is unknown, springbok exhibit this activity when they are nervous or otherwise excited. The most accepted theory for pronking is that it is a method to raise alarm against a potential predator or confuse it, or to get a better view of a concealed predator; it may also be used for [[Display (zoology)|display]].

Springbok are very [[Fastest animals|fast]] antelopes, clocked at {{cvt|88|km/h|mph}}. They generally tend to be ignored by carnivores unless they are breeding.<ref name=richard>{{cite book|last1=Richard|first1=W.|last2=Milton|first2=S.J.|last3=Dean|first3=J.|title=The Karoo: Ecological Patterns and Processes|url=https://archive.org/details/karooecologicalp00dean|url-access=limited|date=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=978-0-521-12687-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/karooecologicalp00dean/page/n184 159]}}</ref> [[Cheetah]]s, [[lion]]s, [[leopard]]s, [[spotted hyena]]s, [[African wild dog|wild dogs]], [[caracal]]s, [[Nile crocodile|crocodiles]] and [[Southern African rock python|pythons]] are major predators of the springbok. [[Southern African wildcat]]s, [[black-backed jackal]]s, [[Verreaux's Eagle]]s, [[martial eagle]]s, and [[tawny eagle]]s target juveniles.<ref name=Cain2004/> Springbok are generally quiet animals, though they may make occasional low-pitched bellows as a greeting and high-pitched snorts when alarmed.<ref name=Bigalke1972/>

=== Parasites ===
A 2012 study on the effects of rainfall patterns and parasite infections on the body of the springbok in [[Etosha National Park]] observed that males and juveniles were in better health toward the end of the rainy season. Health of females was more affected by parasites than by rainfall; parasite count in females peaked prior to and immediately after parturition.<ref name="Turner2012">{{cite journal|last1=Turner|first1=W.C.|last2=Versfeld|first2=W.D.|last3=Kilian|first3=J.W.|last4=Getz|first4=W.M.|title=Synergistic effects of seasonal rainfall, parasites, and demography on fluctuations in springbok body condition|journal=Journal of Animal Ecology|date=2012|volume=81|issue=1|pages=58–69|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2656.2011.01892.x|pmid=21831195|pmc=3217112|bibcode=2012JAnEc..81...58T }} {{open access}}</ref> Studies show that springbok host [[helminth]]s (''[[Haemonchus]]'', ''[[Longistrongylus]]'' and ''[[Trichostrongylus]]''), [[ixodid]] [[tick]]s (''[[Rhipicephalus]]'' species), lice (''[[Damalinia]]'' and ''[[Linognathus]]'' species).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Horak|first1=I.G.|last2=Meltzer|first2=D.G.A.|last3=Vos|first3=V.D.|title=Helminth and arthropod parasites of springbok, ''Antidorcas marsupialis'', in the Transvaal and western Cape Province|journal=Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research|date=1982|volume=49|issue=1|pages=7–10|pmid=7122069|url=http://phthiraptera.info/Publications/8148.pdf|access-date=18 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505154347/http://phthiraptera.info/Publications/8148.pdf|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=dead}} {{open access}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Horak|first1=I.G.|last2=Anthonissen|first2=M.|last3=Krecek|first3=R.C.|last4=Boomker|first4=J.|title=Arthropod parasites of springbok, gemsbok, kudus, giraffes and Burchell's and Hartmann's zebras in the Etosha and Hardap Nature Reserves, Namibia|journal=Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research|date=1992|volume=59|issue=4|pages=253–257|pmid=1297955|url=http://www.the-eis.com/data/literature/Arthropod%20parasites%20_1992.pdf}} {{open access}}</ref> ''[[Eimeria]]'' species mainly affect juveniles.<ref name=Turner2012/>

=== Diet ===
[[File:SPRINGBOK.jpg|thumb|Springbok feed on [[succulent plant|succulent grass]]es.]]

Springbok are primarily [[Browsing (herbivory)|browser]]s and may switch to grazing occasionally; they feed on shrubs and young [[succulent plant|succulent]]s (such as ''[[Lampranthus]]'' species) before they [[Lignified|lignify]].<ref name=east/> They prefer grasses such as ''[[Themeda triandra]]''. Springbok can meet their water needs from the food they eat, and are able to survive without drinking water through dry season. In extreme cases, they do not drink any water over the course of their lives. Springbok may accomplish this by selecting flowers, seeds, and leaves of shrubs before dawn, when the food items are most succulent.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=K.A. |last1=Nagy |first2=M.H. |last2=Knight |year=1994 |title=Energy, water, and food use by springbok antelope (''Antidorcas marsupialis'') in the Kalahari Desert |journal=[[Journal of Mammalogy]] |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=860–872 |jstor=1382468 |doi=10.2307/1382468 |s2cid=83882358 }}</ref> In places such as Etosha National Park, springbok seek out water bodies where they are available.<ref name=east/> Springbok gather in the wet season and disperse during the dry season, unlike other African mammals.<ref name =east/>

=== Reproduction ===
[[File:Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis hofmeyri) suckling.jpg|thumb|A mother suckling her offspring]]
Springbok mate year-round, though females are more likely to enter [[oestrus]] during the rainy season, when food is more plentiful.<ref name=Skinner1996/> Females are able to conceive at as early as six to seven months, whereas males do not attain [[sexual maturity]] until two years;<ref name=rafferty/> rut lasts 5 to 21 days.<ref name=kingdon/> When a female approaches a rutting male, the male holds his head and tail at level with the ground, lowers his horns, and makes a loud grunting noise to attract her. The male then urinates and sniffs the female's [[perineum]]. If the female is receptive, she urinates, as well, and the male makes a [[flehmen]] gesture, and taps his leg till the female leaves or permits him to mate.<ref name=Bigalke1972/><ref name=David1978>{{cite journal | last = David | first = J.H.M. | year = 1978 | title = Observations on territorial behaviour of springbok, ''Antidorcas marsupialis'', in the Bontebok National Park, Swellendam | journal = [[African Zoology|Zoologica Africana]] | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 123–141 | doi=10.1080/00445096.1978.11447611| hdl = 10499/AJ24053 | doi-access = free }} {{open access}}</ref> [[Copulation (zoology)|Copulation]] consists of a single pelvic thrust.<ref>Skinner, G. N. "[https://journals.co.za/content/ATM_Monographs/10/1/AJA090799001_50?crawler=true The Springbok: Antidorcas marsupialis (Zimmermann, 1790). Ecology and physiology. Behaviour.]" Transvaal Museum Monographs 10.1 (1996).</ref>

[[Gestation]] lasts five to six months, after which a single calf (or rarely twins) is born.<ref name=Skinner1996/> Most births take place in the spring (October to November), prior to the onset of the rainy season.<ref name=kingdon/> The infant weighs {{cvt|3.8|to|5|kg}}. The female keeps her calf hidden in cover while she is away. Mother and calf rejoin the herd about three to four weeks after parturition; the young are weaned at five or six months. When the mother gives birth again, the previous offspring, now 6 to 12 months old, deserts her to join herds of adult springbok. Thus, a female can calve twice a year, and even thrice if one calf dies.<ref name=Bigalke1972/><ref name=Bigalke1970/> Springbok live for up to 10 years in the wild.<ref name=Cain2004/>