Editing Austronesian languages (section)

===Primary branches on Taiwan (Formosan languages)===
In addition to [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]], thirteen [[Formosan languages|Formosan subgroups]] are broadly accepted. The seminal article in the classification of Formosan—and, by extension, the top-level structure of Austronesian—is {{Harvcoltxt|Blust|1999}}. Prominent Formosanists (linguists who specialize in Formosan languages) take issue with some of its details, but it remains the point of reference for current linguistic analyses. Debate centers primarily around the relationships between these families. Of the classifications presented here, {{Harvcoltxt|Blust|1999}} links two families into a Western Plains group, two more in a Northwestern Formosan group, and three into an Eastern Formosan group, while {{harvp|Li|2008}} also links five families into a Northern Formosan group. Harvey (1982), Chang (2006) and Ross (2012) split Tsouic, and Blust (2013) agrees the group is probably not valid.

Other studies have presented phonological evidence for a reduced Paiwanic family of [[Paiwanic languages|Paiwanic]], Puyuma, Bunun, Amis, and Malayo-Polynesian, but this is not reflected in vocabulary. The Eastern Formosan peoples Basay, Kavalan, and Amis share a homeland motif that has them coming originally from an island called ''Sinasay'' or ''Sanasay''.{{sfnp|Li|2004}} The Amis, in particular, maintain that they came from the east, and were treated by the Puyuma, amongst whom they settled, as a subservient group.<ref>{{cite journal    | title=A ramble through southern Formosa
                    | last1=Taylor | first1=G.
                    | year=1888
                    | journal=The China Review | volume=16 | pages=137–161
                    | quote =The Tipuns...&nbsp;are certainly descended from emigrants, and I have not the least doubt but that the Amias are of similar origin; only of later date, and most probably from the Mejaco Simas [that is, [[Miyako-jima]]], a group of islands lying 110 miles to the North-east....&nbsp;By all accounts the old Pilam savages, who merged into the Tipuns, were the first settlers on the plain; then came the Tipuns, and a long time afterwards the Amias. The Tipuns, for some time, acknowledged the Pilam Chief as supreme, but soon absorbed both the chieftainship and the people, in fact the only trace left of them now, is a few words peculiar to the Pilam village, one of which, makan (to eat), is pure Malay. The Amias submitted themselves to the jurisdiction of the Tipuns.}}</ref>

==== Blust (1999) ====
[[File:Formosan languages en.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Families of Formosan languages before Minnanese colonization of Taiwan, per Blust (1999)]]

{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
{{tree list}}
*'''Formosan'''
**{{legend|#FFF9A5|'''[[Tsouic languages|Tsouic]]'''<br>(abandoned in Blust 2013)}}
*** [[Tsou language]]
*** [[Saaroa language]]
*** [[Kanakanavu language]]
**{{legend|#FECCA0|'''Western Plains''' }}
*** [[Thao language]] {{aka}} Sao: Brawbaw and Shtafari dialects
*** Central Western Plains
**** [[Babuza language]]; old [[Favorlang language]]: Taokas and Poavosa dialects
**** [[Papora-Hoanya language]]: Papora, Hoanya dialects
**{{legend|#FEA4A4|'''Northwest Formosan'''}}
*** [[Saisiyat language]]: Taai and Tungho dialects
*** [[Pazeh language]] and [[Kulun language|Kulun]]
**{{legend|#9FD8B3|'''[[Atayalic languages|Atayalic]]''' }}
*** [[Atayal language]]
*** [[Seediq language]] {{aka}} Truku/Taroko
**{{legend|#CBA6CB|'''[[East Formosan languages|East Formosan]]'''<br>(based on a single merger, of pAN *n and *j)}}
*** Northern (Kavalanic languages)
**** [[Basay language]]: Trobiawa and Linaw–Qauqaut dialects
**** [[Kavalan language]]
**** [[Ketagalan language]], or Ketangalan
*** Central ([[Amis language|Ami]])
**** [[Amis language|Amis proper]]
**** [[Sakizaya language|Sakizaya]]
*** [[Siraya language]]
**{{legend|#B7DF86|'''[[Bunun language]]''' }}
**{{legend|#E2E17F|'''[[Rukai language]]''' }}
*** Mantauran, Tona, and Maga dialects of [[Rukai language|Rukai]] are divergent
**{{legend|#D3FE00|'''[[Puyuma language]]''' }}
**{{legend|#E1FEEB|'''[[Paiwan language]]''' (south-eastern tip of Formosa)}}
**(outside Formosa)
**{{legend|#DF7575|'''[[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]'''}}
{{tree list/end}}
{{div col end}}

==== Li (2008) ====
[[File:Formosan languages 2005.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Families of Formosan languages before Minnanese colonization, per {{harvp|Li|2008}}. The three languages in green (Bunun, Puyuma, Paiwan) may form a Southern Formosan branch, but this is uncertain.]]
This classification retains Blust's East Formosan, and unites the other northern languages. {{harvp|Li|2008}} proposes a Proto-Formosan (F0) ancestor and equates it with [[Proto-Austronesian]] (PAN), following the model in Starosta (1995).<ref name="Starosta">{{cite book|last=Starosta|first=S|date=1995|chapter=A grammatical subgrouping of Formosan languages|editor1-link=Li Jen-kuei|editor1=P. Li|editor2=Cheng-hwa Tsang|editor3=Ying-kuei Huang|editor4-link=Dah-an Ho|editor4=Dah-an Ho|editor5=Chiu-yu Tseng|name-list-style=amp|title=Austronesian Studies Relating to Taiwan|pages=683–726|publication-place=Taipei|publisher=Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica}}</ref> Rukai and Tsouic are seen as highly divergent, although the position of Rukai is highly controversial.<ref>{{harvp|Li|2008|p=216}}: "The position of Rukai is the most controversial: Tsuchida... treats it as more closely related to Tsouic languages, based on lexicostatistic evidence, while Ho... believes it to be one of the Paiwanic languages, i.e. part of my Southern group, as based on a comparison of fourteen grammatical features. In fact, Japanese anthropologists did not distinguish between Rukai, Paiwan and Puyuma in the early stage of their studies"</ref>
{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
{{tree list}}
*'''Formosan'''
** F0: '''Proto-Formosan''' = '''Proto-Austronesian'''
*** {{legend|#FEA4A4|'''[[Rukai language|Rukai]]'''}}
**** Mantauran
**** Maga–Tona, Budai–Labuan–Taromak
** F1: ''(unnamed branch)''
*** {{legend|#FFF9A5|'''Central ([[Tsouic languages|Tsouic]])'''}}
**** [[Tsou language|Tsou]]
**** Southern Tsouic
***** [[Saaroa language|Saaroa]]
***** [[Kanakanavu language|Kanakanavu]]
** F2: ''(unnamed branch)''
*** {{legend|#FECCA0|'''[[Northern Formosan languages|Northern Formosan]]'''}}
**** Northwestern (Plains)
***** [[Saisiyat language|Saisiyat]]–[[Kulon language|Kulon]], [[Pazeh language|Pazeh]]
***** Western
****** [[Thao language|Thao]]
****** West Coast ([[Papora language|Papora]]–[[Hoanya language|Hoanya]]–[[Babuza language|Babuza]]–Taokas)
**** [[Atayalic languages|Atayalic]]
***** [[Atayal language|Squliq Atayal]]
***** [[Atayal language|Ts'ole' Atayal]] (= C'uli')
***** [[Seediq language|Seediq]]
*** {{legend|#CBA6CB|'''[[East Formosan languages|East Formosan]]'''}}
**** [[Kavalan language|Kavalan]]–[[Basay language|Basay]]
**** [[Siraya language|Siraya]]–[[Amis language|Amis]]–[[Nataoran language|Nataoran]]
**** [[Sakizaya language|Sakizaya]]
*** ? '''Southern''' [uncertain]
**** {{legend|#B7DF86|[[Bunun language|Bunun]]}}
***** Isbukun
***** Northern and Central (Takitudu and Takbanuaz)
**** {{legend|#9FD8B3|[[Paiwan language|Paiwan]]–[[Puyuma language|Puyuma]] [uncertain]}}
{{tree list/end}}
{{Div col end}}

===={{vanchor|Sagart}} (2004, 2021)====
[[File:Formosan languages Sagart 2021.png|thumb|Nested branches of Austronesian languages according to Sagart. Languages colored red are outside the other branches but are not subgrouped. Kradai and Malayo-Polynesian would also be purple.]]
Sagart (2004) proposes that the numerals of the Formosan languages reflect a nested series of innovations, from languages in the northwest (near the putative landfall of the Austronesian migration from the mainland), which share only the numerals 1–4 with proto-Malayo-Polynesian, counter-clockwise to the eastern languages (purple on map), which share all numerals 1–10. Sagart (2021) finds other shared innovations that follow the same pattern. He proposes that pMP *lima 'five' is a lexical replacement (from 'hand'), and that pMP *pitu 'seven', *walu 'eight' and *Siwa 'nine' are contractions of pAN *RaCep 'five', a ligature *a or *i 'and', and *duSa 'two', *telu 'three', *Sepat 'four', an analogical pattern historically attested from [[Pazeh language|Pazeh]]. The fact that the [[Kradai languages]] share the numeral system (and other lexical innovations) of pMP suggests that they are a coordinate branch with Malayo-Polynesian, rather than a sister family to Austronesian.<ref>Laurent Sagart (2004) The Higher Phylogeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadai</ref><ref>Laurent Sagart (2021) A more detailed early Austronesian phylogeny. Plenary talk at the 15th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics.</ref>

Sagart's resulting classification is:<ref>The tree can be found at the following link. Click on the nodes to see the proposed shared innovations for each. <br>{{cite web | url = https://f-origin.hypotheses.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/3902/files/2020/12/Clickable-Austronesian-phylogeny_2020-.pdf | title = Shared innovations in early Austronesian phylogeny | author = Laurent Sagart | date = July 2021}}</ref>

{{tree list}}
*'''Austronesian''' (pAN ca. 5200 BP)
** {{legend|#df3b75|[[Saisiyat language|Saisiyat]]}}
** {{legend|#DF7575|[[Luilang language|Luilang]]}}
** {{legend|#FEA4A4|[[Pazeh language|Pazeh]], [[Kulon language|Kulon]]<br>(These four languages are outside Pituish, but Sagart is ambivalent as to any relationship among them, other than retaining Blust's connection between Pazeh and Kulon)}}
** '''Pituish''' <br>(pAN *RaCepituSa 'five-and-two' truncated to *pitu 'seven'; *sa-ŋ-aCu 'nine' [lit. one taken away])
*** {{legend|#FECCA0|[[Favorlang language|Favorlang]]–[[Taokas language|Taokas]]}}
*** '''Limaish''' <br>(pAN *RaCep 'five' replaced by *lima 'hand'; *Ca~ reduplication to form the series of numerals for counting humans)
**** {{legend|#FFF9A5|[[Thao language|Thao]]–[[Atayalic languages|Atayalic]]}}
**** '''Enemish''' <br>(additive 'five-and-one' or 'twice-three' replaced by reduplicated *Nem-Nem > *emnem [*Nem 'three' is reflected in Basay, Siraya and Makatao]; pAN *kawaS 'year, sky' replaced by *CawiN)
***** {{legend|#D3FE00|[[Siraya language|Siraya]]}}
***** '''Walu-Siwaish'''<br>(*walu 'eight' and *Siwa 'nine' from *RaCepat(e)lu 'five-and-three' and *RaCepiSepat 'five-and-four')
****** {{legend|#B7DF86|West WS: [[Papora language|Papora]]–[[Hoanya language|Hoanya]] <br>(pAN *Sapuy 'fire' replaced by *[Z]apuR 'cooking fire'; pAN *qudem 'black replaced by *abi[Z]u, found in MP as 'blue')}}
****** {{legend|#9FD8B3|Central WS<br>(pAN *isa etc. 'one' replaced by *Ca~CiNi (reduplication of 'alone') in the human-counting series; pAN *iCit 'ten' replaced by *ma-sa-N 'one times'.)}}
******* [[Bunun language|Bunun]]
******* [[Rukai language|Rukai]]–[[Tsouic languages|Tsouic]]<br>(CV~ reduplication in human-counting series replaced with competing pAN noun-marker *u- [unknown whether Bunun once had the same]; eleven lexical innovations such as *cáni 'one', *kəku 'leg')
****** East WS (pEWS ca. 4500 BP)<br>(innovations *baCaq-an 'ten'; *nanum 'water' alongside pAN *daNum)
******* {{legend|#86A6C8|[[Kavalanic languages]]}}
******* {{legend|#CBA6CB|'''Puluqish'''<br>(innovative *sa-puluq 'ten', from *sa- 'one' + 'separate, set aside'; use of prefixes *paka- and *maka- to mark [[abilitative]])}}
******** Northern: [[Amis language|Ami]]–[[Puyuma language|Puyuma]]<br>(*sasay 'one'; *mukeCep 'ten' for the human and non-human series; *ukak 'bone', *kuCem 'cloud')
******** [[Paiwan language|Paiwan]]
******** Southern Austronesian (pSAN ca. 4000 BP)<br>(linker *atu 'and' > *at after *sa-puluq in numerals 11–19; lexical innovations such as *baqbaq 'mouth', *qa-sáuŋ 'canine tooth', *qi(d)zúR 'saliva', *píntu 'door', *-ŋel 'deaf')
********* [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra-Dai]]
********* [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
{{tree list/end}}