Editing Baghdad (section)

===Modern era (1917–2000)===
{{see also|Mandate for Mesopotamia|Kingdom of Iraq|Mandatory Iraq|Iraqi Republic (1958-1968)|Ba'athist Iraq}}
[[File:Baghdad LOC 13186.jpg|left|thumb|[[Al-Rashid Street]] in 1931]]
Baghdad and southern Iraq remained under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule until 1917, when they were captured by the [[British Empire|British]] during [[World War I]].<ref name="Jackson-2016" /> A revolt erupted against the British rule in Iraq.<ref name="BBC News-2014">{{Cite news |date=6 October 2014 |title=The 1920s British air bombing campaign in Iraq |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29441383 |access-date=23 March 2025 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> The revolt was retaliated in air bombing campaigns by the British forces in 1920 and thousands of residents were killed.<ref name="BBC News-2014" /> In 1920, Baghdad became the capital of the [[Mandatory Iraq]] under the [[British Mandate of Mesopotamia|Mandate of Mesopotamia]], with several architectural and planning projects commissioned to reinforce this administration.<ref name="Jackson-2016">{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Iain |date=2 April 2016 |title=The architecture of the British Mandate in Iraq: nation-building and state creation |journal=The Journal of Architecture |language=en |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=375–417 |doi=10.1080/13602365.2016.1179662 |issn=1360-2365 |doi-access=free}}</ref> After receiving independence in 1932, the city became capital of the new [[Kingdom of Iraq]].<ref name="Jackson-2016" /> During this period, the substantial Jewish community (probably exceeding 100,000 people) comprised between a quarter and a third of the city's population.<ref name="GhareebDougherty2004">{{cite book |author1=Edmund A. Ghareeb |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000ghar |title=Historical Dictionary of Iraq |author2=Beth Dougherty |date=18 March 2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6568-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000ghar/page/125 125] |quote=Jews represented 2.5 percent of 'Iraq's population and 25 percent of Baghdad's. |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Jewish Quarterly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w75tAAAAMAAJ |volume=42 |year=1995 |publisher=Jewish Literary Trust |page=11 |access-date=2 May 2021 |archive-date=2 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502134253/https://books.google.com/books?id=w75tAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 1 April 1941, members of the "[[Golden Square (Iraq)|Golden Square]]" and [[Rashid Ali al-Gaylani]] staged [[1941 Iraqi coup d'état|a coup in Baghdad]] and installed a pro-[[Nazi Germany|German]] and pro-[[Kingdom of Italy|Italian]] government to replace the pro-British government of [[Regent]] [[Abd al-Ilah]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=On this day 31st May {{!}} Royal Signals Museum |url=https://www.royalsignalsmuseum.co.uk/on-this-day-31st-may/ |access-date=3 October 2024 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name="Warfare History Network-2024">{{Cite web |title=The Nazi March on Baghdad |url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/wwii-the-nazi-march-on-baghdad/ |access-date=3 October 2024 |website=Warfare History Network |language=en-US}}</ref> On 31 May, after the resulting [[Anglo-Iraqi War]], Gaylani and his government had fled, and the mayor of Baghdad surrendered to the British and Commonwealth forces.<ref name="Warfare History Network-2024" /> On 1–2 June, during the ensuing [[power vacuum]], Jewish residents were attacked following rumors they had aided the British.<ref name="Tsimhoni-2001" /> In what became known as the [[Farhud]], over 180 Jews were killed, 1,000 injured and hundreds of Jewish properties were ransacked.<ref name="Tsimhoni-2001">{{cite book |last=Tsimhoni |first=D. |year=2001 |chapter=The Pogrom (Farhud) against the Jews of Baghdad in 1941 |editor-last=Roth |editor-first=J. K. |editor2-last=Maxwell |editor2-first=E. |editor3-last=Levy |editor3-first=M. |editor4-last=Whitworth |editor4-first=W. |title=Remembering for the Future |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-80486-5}}</ref><ref name="gilbert">[[Martin Gilbert]]. [https://archive.org/details/atlasofjewishhis00mart <!-- quote="Jewish property destroyed June 1941 During riots following collapse of pro- Nazi Government of Rashid Ali, 175 Jews killed and 1000 injured. Much looting of Jewish property. 900 Jewish houses destroyed. Many Jews tortured July 1946". --> The atlas of Jewish history], William Morrow and Company, 1993. pg. 114. {{ISBN|978-0-688-12264-5}}.</ref> Between 300 and 400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kaplan |first=Robert D |date=April 2014 |title=In Defence of Empire |language=en-US |pages=13–15 |work=[[The Atlantic]] |type=Print}}</ref> 

Between 1950 and 1951, Jews were targeted in series of bombings.<ref name="Middle East Eye-1950">{{Cite web |title=Avi Shlaim says he has 'proof of Zionist involvement' in 1950s attack on Iraqi Jews |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/avi-shlaim-proof-israel-zionist-involvement-iraq-jews-attacks |access-date=11 December 2024 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}}</ref> According to [[Avi Shlaim]], [[Israel and state-sponsored terrorism|Israel was behind bombings]], which is also believed by the majority of the Iraqis.<ref name="Middle East Eye-1950" />
[[File:14 July Revolution.jpg|left|thumb|Revolutionary soldiers in a street of Baghdad, 1958]]
The city's population grew from an estimated 145,000 in 1900 to 580,000 in 1950.<ref name="ReferenceA">This section depends on Levine, 397-402.</ref> A development plan came during the reign of [[Faisal II|King Faisal II]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> On 14 July 1958, members of the [[Iraqi Army]], under [[Abdul-Karim Qasim]], [[14 July Revolution|staged a coup to topple the Kingdom of Iraq]].<ref name="bataween-2022">{{Cite web |last=bataween |date=3 August 2022 |title=Memories of the 1958 Iraqi revolution – Point of No Return |url=https://www.jewishrefugees.org.uk/2022/08/memories-of-the-1958-iraqi-revolution.html |access-date=11 December 2024 |website=jewishrefugees.org.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> King Faisal, former Prime Minister [[Nuri al-Said]], former Regent Prince [[Abd al-Ilah]], members of the royal family, and others were brutally killed during the coup.<ref name="bataween-2022" /> Many of the victim's bodies were then dragged through the streets of Baghdad.<ref name="bataween-2022" /> 

Qasim adopted new principles to develop the city.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Global Socialist Planning of Baghdad |url=https://jacobin.com/2023/10/socialist-bloc-baghdad-city-planning-poland-miastoprojekt |access-date=11 December 2024 |website=jacobin.com |language=en-US}}</ref> New projects such as [[Sadr City|Al–Thawra]] and [[New Baghdad]] (''Baghdad al-Jadeeda'') came under his rule.<ref>{{cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://makingmaps.files.wordpress.com/2008/09/bahgdad052.png |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718094851/http://makingmaps.files.wordpress.com/2008/09/bahgdad052.png |archive-date=18 July 2011 |access-date=7 April 2010}}</ref> In 1960, Baghdad hosted an international conference with dignitaries from [[Iran]], [[Venezuela]] and [[Saudi Arabia]], that founded [[OPEC|Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC).<ref>{{Cite web |title=OPEC : OPEC to celebrate its 60th Anniversary in Baghdad on 16 June |url=https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/7164.htm |access-date=11 December 2024 |website=opec.org}}</ref>
[[File:Fonds André Raymond (1925-2011) - Irak - Bagdad - Le Tigre (MédiHAL 4971868).jpg|thumb|Baghdad in 1982]]
During the 1970s, Baghdad experienced relative prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in the [[price of petroleum]], Iraq's main export.<ref name="Stanek-2020" /> New [[infrastructure]] including modern sewerage, water, highway facilities, and airport were built during this period.<ref name="Stanek-2020" /> Master plans of the city in 1967 and 1973 were delivered by the Polish planning office Miastoprojekt-Kraków, mediated by Polservice.<ref name="Stanek-2020">Stanek, Łukasz (2020). ''Architecture in global socialism : Eastern Europe, West Africa, and the Middle East in the Cold War''. Princeton. {{ISBN|978-0-691-19455-4}}.</ref> [[Saddam Hussein]] oversaw the beautification of the city and sponsored architectural and artwork events, that attracted world's popular architects.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ouroussoff |first=Nicolai |date=15 December 2003 |title=Patron of fear |url=https://www.latimes.com/la-et-ouroussoff15dec15-story.html |access-date=29 April 2025 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ouroussoff |first=Nicolai |date=15 December 2003 |title=Patron of fear |url=https://www.latimes.com/la-et-ouroussoff15dec15-story.html |access-date=28 February 2025 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> Numerous museums, offices, palaces, convention centers and hotels such as [[Ishtar Hotel|Sheraton]] and [[Babylon Rotana Baghdad Hotel|Oberoi]] were built.<ref name="Stanek-2020" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=New Silk Roads - Azadeh Mashayekhi et al. - Consuming Baghdad |url=https://www.e-flux.com/architecture/new-silk-roads/624665/consuming-baghdad/ |access-date=28 February 2025 |website=e-flux |language=en}}</ref> Baghdad was called as "the [[Nuremberg]] of 1930s" and "[[Las Vegas]] of the 1980s".<ref name="Iddon">{{cite web |last1=Iddon |first1=Paul |title=Baghdad's four decades of conflict and strife |url=https://www.newarab.com/analysis/baghdads-four-decades-conflict-and-strife |work=The New Arab}}</ref>

However, the [[Iran–Iraq War]] of the 1980s was a difficult time for the city, as money was diverted to the [[Iraqi Army|army]] and thousands of residents were killed.<ref name="wilsoncenter-2024">{{Cite web |title=The Iran-Iraq War: The View from Baghdad {{!}} Wilson Center |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/the-iran-iraq-war-the-view-baghdad |access-date=3 October 2024 |website=wilsoncenter.org |language=en}}</ref> [[Iran]] launched a number of missile attacks against Baghdad in retaliation for the Iraqi Army's continuous bombardments of [[Tehran]]'s residential districts.<ref name="wilsoncenter-2024" /> The city was attacked numerous times between 1986 and 1988 by the Iranian forces.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Times |first=Special to the New York |date=12 September 1986 |title=Baghdad Area Struck By an Iranian Missile |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/09/12/world/baghdad-area-struck-by-an-iranian-missile.html |access-date=12 March 2025 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Dickey |first=Christopher |date=29 May 1985 |title=Iranian Missile Hits Baghdad |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1985/05/29/iranian-missile-hits-baghdad/658c708f-bae3-49fe-be6c-8e6cf5f15c5c/ |access-date=12 March 2025 |newspaper=The Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Archives |first=L. A. Times |date=29 February 1988 |title=Many Killed, Wounded as 2 Iran Missiles Hit Baghdad |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-02-29-mn-285-story.html |access-date=12 March 2025 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> Power plants and oil refineries in Baghdad were damaged.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Morrison |first=Kenneth |title=The Al Rasheed Hotel: 40 years of an iconic Baghdad landmark |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2022/11/10/the-al-rasheed-hotel-40-years-of-an-iconic-baghdad-landmark |access-date=12 March 2025 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 November 2015 |title=The Iran–Iraq War (Baghdad, October 1980) |url=https://www.cvce.eu/en/obj/the_iran_iraq_war_baghdad_october_1980-en-9ae6866a-6a21-427a-a180-46eae07e207e.html |access-date=12 March 2025 |website=CVCE.EU by UNI.LU |language=en}}</ref> In 1981, a nuclear reactor near Baghdad was destroyed in an airstrike by Israel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peace mission to Baghdad, May 1988 |url=http://www.hanskoechler.com/HK-peace_mission-1988.htm |access-date=12 March 2025 |website=www.hanskoechler.com}}</ref> Iran also fired numerous rockets towards the city, landing dangerously close to [[Al-Rashid Street]] and the Jewish Quarter. In 1983, a [[Non-Aligned Movement|Non-Alignment Movement]] summit was proposed to be held in Baghdad.<ref name="UPI-2025">{{Cite web |title=Iraq concedes non-aligned summit - UPI Archives |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1982/08/11/Iraq-concedes-non-aligned-summit/4531397886400/ |access-date=23 March 2025 |website=UPI |language=en}}</ref> However, due to security concerns, the summit was postponed to be held in [[New Delhi]].<ref name="UPI-2025" />

During the [[Gulf War]], the multinational forces preceded with aerial bombings and airstrikes in Baghdad, described as "fireworks".<ref>{{Cite web |title=ABC Evening News for 1991-01-17 {{!}} Vanderbilt Television News Archive |url=https://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/programs/131211 |access-date=12 March 2025 |website=tvnews.vanderbilt.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Shales |first=Tom |date=18 January 1991 |title=THE GRIM NEWS FROM BEHIND A MASK |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1991/01/18/the-grim-news-from-behind-a-mask/e5f8eb20-8ffe-4a00-81c6-aa338a07aaca/ |access-date=12 March 2025 |newspaper=The Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref name="Dictatorship, Imperialism and Chaos: Iraq Since 19892">{{cite book |author=Thabit Abdullah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WeMehH-JadMC&pg=PA82 |title=Dictatorship, Imperialism and Chaos: Iraq Since 1989 |publisher=Zed Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84277-787-9 |page=82}}</ref> Air defenses, bridges, communications systems, chemical weapons facilities, tanks and artillery were damaged.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Glass |first=Andrew |date=17 January 2018 |title=Bombing of Iraq begins, Jan. 17, 1991 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2018/01/17/shock-and-awe-bombing-of-iraq-begins-jan-17-1991-340599 |access-date=12 March 2025 |website=POLITICO |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=30 Years After the Gulf War, Emad Levy Recounts Iraqi-Jewish Perspective |url=https://en.davar1.co.il/276670/ |access-date=11 December 2024 |website=Davar |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Clarity |first=James F. |date=17 January 1991 |title=WAR IN THE GULF: BAGHDAD; From TV Reporters in Iraq, News an Attack Has Begun |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/17/world/war-in-the-gulf-baghdad-from-tv-reporters-in-iraq-news-an-attack-has-begun.html |access-date=12 March 2025 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Oil refinery and airport were targeted.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 January 1991 |title=1991: 'Mother of all Battles' begins |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/17/newsid_2530000/2530375.stm |access-date=12 March 2025 |language=en-GB}}</ref> On 13 February 1991, an [[Amiriyah shelter bombing|aerial bombing attack]] in [[Amiriya]] killed at least 408 civilians.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 February 1991 |title=1991: US bombers strike civilians in Baghdad |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/13/newsid_2541000/2541107.stm |access-date=12 March 2025 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Jeenah |first=Na'eem |authorlink=Na'eem Jeenah |date=July 2001 |title=Al-Amariyah – A Graveyard of unwilling martyrs |url=http://naeemjeenah.shams.za.org/amariyah.htm |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080128175408/http://naeemjeenah.shams.za.org/amariyah.htm |archivedate=28 January 2008 |accessdate=6 May 2009}}</ref> Shortly after the war ended in 1991, ethnic Kurds and Shi'ite Muslims in Iraq led [[1991 Iraqi uprisings|uprisings against the government]].<ref name="Dictatorship, Imperialism and Chaos: Iraq Since 19892" /> Baghdad was sight of clashes between the Shi'ite rebels and [[Republican Guard (Iraq)|Republican Guard]] led by [[Qusay Hussein]].<ref name="Dictatorship, Imperialism and Chaos: Iraq Since 19892" /><ref name="Dictatorship, Imperialism and Chaos: Iraq Since 1989">{{cite book |author=Thabit Abdullah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WeMehH-JadMC&pg=PA82 |title=Dictatorship, Imperialism and Chaos: Iraq Since 1989 |publisher=Zed Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84277-787-9 |page=82}}</ref> Another [[1999 Shia uprising in Iraq|uprising occurred in 1999]], after Ayatollah [[Muhammad al-Sadr (jurist)|Muhammad Sadiq al-Sadr]] was assassinated in [[Najaf]].<ref name="DavidBlair">{{cite news |author=David Blair |date=17 December 2002 |title=Attack could be spark for Shia Muslim uprising |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/1416418/Attack-could-be-spark-for-Shia-Muslim-uprising.html |access-date=1 February 2013 |newspaper=The Telegraph}}</ref> Unrest began as large scale protests took place in Shia neighborhoods of Baghdad, specially [[Saddam City]].<ref name="DavidBlair" /> The Republican Guard deployed in the district suppressed the demonstration, leaving between 27 and 100 dead.<ref name="DavidBlair" /> The city was targeted by the United States and the United Kingdom in [[1993 cruise missile strikes on Iraq|1993]], [[1996 cruise missile strikes on Iraq|1996]], [[1998 bombing of Iraq|1998]], 2000 and [[February 2001 airstrike in Iraq|2001]], with the attack in 1993, led to the killing of Iraqi icon and actress [[Layla Al-Attar]].<ref name="Dictatorship, Imperialism and Chaos: Iraq Since 19892" /><ref name="Dictatorship, Imperialism and Chaos: Iraq Since 1989" />