Editing Border reivers (section)

==Antecedents on the Anglo-Scottish frontier==
===Hen Ogledd===
The pervasive tradition of cattle raiding and endemic violence in the Border region appears to have roots that extend deep into its history, suggesting that such practices have long been an intrinsic part of the area's cultural and social fabric. The earliest references to such behaviour appear in the Old Welsh ([[Hen Ogledd]]) poems attributed to bards such as [[Taliesin]], [[Aneirin]], and [[Llywarch Hen]], which describe battles and raids in the early medieval period of what is now the Anglo-Scottish Borders. These poetic accounts hint at a long-standing culture of raiding and conflict in the northern British territories.<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W. W. Norton & Company, 2021., p77</ref>

<blockquote>''I roared, my breast full of tumult,<br>Lance on my shoulder, shield in my hand,<br>When Goddeu and Rheged were ranged for war,<br>I saw a man who was raiding cattle -<br>Famous dragon, unique trampler.''<ref>Lewis, Gwyneth, and Rowan Williams, translators. ''The Book of Taliesin: Poems of Warfare and Praise in an Enchanted Britain''. Penguin Classics, London, 2019, lines 44–48, p.19. {{ISBN|978-0-14-139693-4}}.</ref></blockquote>

Modern genetic studies support the idea of continuity in the Borders region, showing that its population clusters separately from both broader Scottish and English genetic groups.<ref name="Gilbert, E. 2019">Gilbert, E., O'Reilly, S., Merrigan, M., McGettigan, D., Vitart, V., Joshi, P. K., Clark, D. W., Campbell, H., Hayward, C., Ring, S., Golding, J., Goodfellow, S., Navarro, P., Kerr, S. M., Amador, C., Campbell, A., Haley, C. S., Porteous, D. J., Cavalleri, G. L., & Wilson, J. F. (2019). The genetic landscape of Scotland and the Isles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(38), 19064-19070.</ref> There is evidence of continued settlement patterns in the Anglo-Scottish Borders, suggesting a continuity of territorial practices from the pre-Anglo-Saxon period.<ref>O'Brien, C. (2002). The Early Medieval Shires of Yeavering, Breamish and Bamburgh. Archaeologia Aeliana, 5th Series, 30, p55.</ref> This distinction aligns with the historical role of the Borders as a cultural and geographical transitional zone and is consistent with the region's heritage, tracing back to the [[Brittonic languages|Brythonic-speaking]] kingdoms of [[Gododdin]] and [[Rheged]].<ref name="Gilbert, E. 2019"/>

==='The ancient laws and customs of the land'===
[[March law (Anglo-Scottish border)|Laws of the Marches]], or ''Leges Marchiarum'', first formally codified in [[1249]], offers a significant insight into the long-standing legal and social structures designed to manage the unique challenges of the Anglo-Scottish Border.<ref name="Leeson2009"/> This legal framework addressed not only diplomatic relations between England and Scotland but also sought to regulate banditry, cross-border smuggling, and feuding. Its provisions included the return of fugitives, the recovery of debts, and the production of accused parties at designated trysting places along the border, such as Reddenburn near Kelso.<ref name="auto23"/> These trysting places served as neutral meeting points for resolving disputes under the framework of March law.<ref name="auto19"/>

The formulation of March law followed a meeting in 1248 between six English knights and six Scottish knights, and the resulting code was formally promulgated the following year.{{sfn|Neville|1998|p=5}} Between 1249 and 1596, the laws of the marches were reviewed and recodified on at least eight occasions, reflecting their enduring importance in managing Border relations.<ref name="auto23"/> The legal traditions referenced in these codes draw upon "the ancient laws and customs of the land," and some of the language, such as "handwasil" and "manbote," suggests Anglo-Saxon origins. The document itself refers to the laws as originating "from a time which memory does not exist," implying that aspects of March law may predate the Norman Conquest. However, the extent to which these laws derive from pre-Norman customs remains a topic of scholarly debate.{{sfn|Neville|1998|p=1–2}}

===Schavaldours===
An earlier rendition of banditry may have been the bands of armed men who first appeared on the Borders in the early 14th century, then known as the Schavaldours<ref>"Schavaldour," *The Anglo-Norman Dictionary*. Retrieved 11 November 2024, from [https://anglo-norman.net/entry/schavaldour](https://anglo-norman.net/entry/schavaldour).</ref> (also spelled shavaldour, shavaldor, or shavaldor) during the unstable rule of [[Edward II of England]]. The term was first recorded in 1313, when [[Richard Kellaw|Richard de Kellawe]], then [[Bishop of Durham]], requested to be excused from levying any money from the goods of the parson of Whickham, citing the damage caused by "Schavadours and plunderers." The Schavaldours, like the later (and anachronistically named) Border reivers, were often pressed into service during cross-border wars, such as those in 1350.<ref name="auto5">King, Andy. War, Politics, and Landed Society in Northumberland, c.1296-c.1408. PhD Thesis, Durham University, 2001.</ref>

The problem of banditry grew worse following Edward II's loss at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in 1314 and appeared to further worsen after a severe famine in 1315–1317 and a failed campaign in 1322.<ref name="auto5"/> The anarchy that followed created conditions where both organised and independent bands of Scottish armed men, along with opportunistic English bands, raided as far as Yorkshire, devastating the land not only through plunder but also widespread burning.<ref name="auto25"/>

While the term 'Schalvadours' disappears from records by the late 14th century, the violence and lawlessness that characterised the Border region continued for centuries.<ref name="auto5"/>

===Border Warfare and the Rise of Surnames===
The Border reivers emerged between the end of the [[First War of Scottish Independence|First Scottish War of Independence]] and the [[Wars of the Roses]], as fortified defenses in England began appear during this period.<ref name="auto25"/><ref name="auto19"/> The earliest example for an elaborate nickname appears in this period, with John "Out with the sword" Turnbull (early 15th century).<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto27">Scott Elliot, George Francis. The Border Elliots and the Family of Minto. David Douglas, Edinburgh, 1897.</ref>

It was during this turbulent period that surnames and heidsmen emerged, reflecting the region's descent into endemic warfare and banditry. These kinship groups and leaders were vital for organising defence, raids, and social order in a lawless frontier where traditional authority had broken down.<ref name="Ellis, Steven G 1995, p.62"/>

During [[Edward II of England|Edward II]]'s reign, men in the liberties of Tynedale and Redesdale received immunity from land confiscation, a deliberate policy to secure their loyalty for Scottish campaigns. These liberties often provided sanctuary for raiders and fugitives, with a formal protected status emerging through Edward's policies.<ref name="auto25"/>

The [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Wars of Independence]] severely impacted the Borders, leading to the displacement of many local gentry families due to violence and instability.<ref name="auto25"/> After the [[Battle of Bannockburn|Battle of Bannockburn (1314)]], the weakened English crown effectively abandoned northern England, issuing [[scorched earth|scorched earth retreat]] orders that were often ignored by English borderers who joined in the plunder. Many families who did leave never to return.<ref>Ralph Robson, The English Highland Clans, (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989), p33</ref> However, following the English victory at [[Halidon Hill|Halidon Hill (1333)]], both older and newly emergent Surnames began to re-establish themselves in the region.<ref>Ralph Robson, The English Highland Clans, (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989), p35</ref>

In the aftermath of the Battle of Bannockburn, a new type of soldier emerged from the northern counties: the hobelar. These lightly armoured cavalrymen, mounted on hardy fell ponies and equipped with lances or bows, rose to prominence during the reign of Edward III.<ref>Ralph Robson, The English Highland Clans, (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989)., p33</ref>

Following [[Edward Balliol]]'s defeat at the [[Battle of Halidon Hill]] (1333), England expanded into southern Scotland and neglected governance of the traditional border region, creating a power vacuum that fostered lawlessness.{{sfn|Neville|1998|pp=30-31}} Despite the Treaty of Berwick ending the Wars of Scottish Independence after [[David II of Scotland|David II]]'s return from English captivity in 1357,<ref>Magnusson, Magnus. Scotland, The Story of a Nation. London: HarperCollins, 2001, pp204-5</ref>  border raiding continued as an established way of life.