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== Abbasid Caliphate (750–1517) == {{Main|Abbasid Caliphate}} === Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad === [[File:Mustansiriya University CPT.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Mustansiriya Madrasah]] in [[Baghdad]]]] In 750, the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by another family of [[Mecca]]n origin, the Abbasids. Their time represented a scientific, cultural and religious flowering.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HIST 210 – Lecture 16 – The Splendor of the Abbasid Period |url=https://oyc.yale.edu/history/hist-210/lecture-16 |access-date=2023-10-11 |publisher=Open Yale Courses |archive-date=28 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028163238/https://oyc.yale.edu/history/hist-210/lecture-16 |url-status=live}}</ref> Islamic art and music also flourished significantly during their reign.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Yalman |first1=Suzan |last2=Komaroff |first2=Linda |title=The Art of the Abbasid Period (750–1258) |date=October 2001 |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/abba/hd_abba.htm |access-date=2023-10-11 |department=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |archive-date=5 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705200631/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/abba/hd_abba.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Their major city and capital [[Baghdad]] began to flourish as a center of knowledge, culture and trade. This period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with the [[sack of Baghdad]] by the Mongols under [[Hulagu Khan]]. The Abbasid Caliphate had, however, lost its effective power outside Iraq already by c. 920.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295642/Islamic-arts/61832/Early-period-the-Umayyad-and-Abbasid-dynasties |title=Islamic arts |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-date=27 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527004608/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295642/Islamic-arts/61832/Early-period-the-Umayyad-and-Abbasid-dynasties |url-status=live}}</ref> By 945, the loss of power became official when the [[Buyids]] conquered Baghdad and all of Iraq. The empire fell apart and its parts were ruled for the next century by local dynasties.<ref name="BritannicaAbbasids" /> In the ninth century, the [[Abbasids]] created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed predominantly of Turkic Cuman, Circassian and Georgian slave origin known as Mamluks.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Georgian Mameluks in Egypt |url=https://www.napoleon-series.org/military-info/organization/c_mameluks1.html |access-date=7 May 2021 |website=www.napoleon-series.org |archive-date=26 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026164635/http://www.napoleon-series.org/military/organization/c_mameluks1.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=The Mamlukes |url=https://egyptian-history.com/blogs/history-of-egypt/mamluks |access-date=7 May 2021 |website=Egyptian History |archive-date=21 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621181523/https://egyptian-history.com/blogs/history-of-egypt/mamluks |url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2024}} By 1250 the Mamluks came to power in Egypt. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided the government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al-Mu'tasim's transfer of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew until [[Ar-Radi]] (934–941) was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to [[Muhammad ibn Ra'iq]]. === Under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo (1261–1517) === {{Main|Mamluk Sultanate}} In 1261, following the [[Mongol conquest of Baghdad]], the Mamluk rulers of Egypt tried to gain legitimacy for their rule by declaring the re-establishment of the Abbasid caliphate in [[Cairo]].{{Citation needed|date= January 2018}} The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt had no political power; they continued to maintain the symbols of authority, but their sway was confined to religious matters.{{Citation needed|date= January 2018}} The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was [[Al-Mustansir II|Al-Mustansir]] (r. June–November 1261). The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of [[Al-Mutawakkil III]], who ruled as caliph from 1508 to 1516, then he was deposed briefly in 1516 by his predecessor [[Al-Mustamsik]], but was restored again to the caliphate in 1517.{{Citation needed|date= January 2018}} The Ottoman sultan [[Selim I]] defeated the Mamluk Sultanate and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Al-Mutawakkil III was captured together with his family and transported to Constantinople as a prisoner where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh N. |author-link=Hugh N. Kennedy |title=The Historiography of Islamic Egypt: (c. 950–1800) |year=2001 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004117945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-iu6u8GkvkC}}</ref> === Parallel regional caliphates in the later Abbasid era === The Abbasid dynasty lost effective power over much of the Muslim realm by the first half of the tenth century. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over [[Al-Andalus]], reclaimed the title of caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031. ==== Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031) ==== {{Main|Umayyad state of Córdoba|Al-Andalus}} [[File:Califato de Córdoba - 1000-en.svg|thumb|right|Map of the Caliphate of Cordoba c. 1000]] During the Umayyad dynasty, the [[Iberian Peninsula]] was an integral province of the Umayyad Caliphate ruling from [[Damascus]]. The Umayyads lost the position of caliph in Damascus in 750, and [[Abd al-Rahman I]] became Emir of Córdoba in 756 after six years in exile. Intent on regaining power, he defeated the existing Islamic rulers of the area who defied Umayyad rule and united various local fiefdoms into an emirate. Rulers of the emirate used the title "emir" or "sultan" until the tenth century, when [[Abd al-Rahman III]] was faced with the threat of invasion by the Fatimid Caliphate. To aid his fight against the invading Fatimids, who claimed the caliphate in opposition to the generally recognised Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, [[Al-Mu'tadid]], Abd al-Rahman III claimed the title of caliph himself. This helped Abd al-Rahman III gain prestige with his subjects, and the title was retained after the Fatimids were repulsed. The rule of the caliphate is considered as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, before it fragmented into various [[taifa]]s in the eleventh century. This period was characterised by a flourishing in technology, trade and culture; a number of the buildings of [[al-Andalus]] were constructed in this period. ==== Almohad Caliphate (1147–1269) ==== {{Main|Almohad Caliphate}} [[File:Empire almohade.PNG|thumb|The Almohad empire at its greatest extent, {{circa|1180–1212}}]] The Almohad Caliphate ({{langx|ber|Imweḥḥden}}, from {{lang|ar|الموحدون}} ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Muwaḥḥidun}}'', "[[monotheism|the Monotheists]]" or "the Unifiers") was a Moroccan<ref>[[Bernard Lugan]], ''Histoire du Maroc'', {{ISBN|2262016445}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Carlos |last=Ramirez-Faria |title=Concise Encyclopedia Of World History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC |year=2007 |publisher=Atlantic |isbn=978-8126907755 |pages=23, 676 |access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref> [[Berbers|Berber]] [[Muslim]] movement founded in the 12th century.<ref name="BritannicaAlmohads">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/16820/Almohads |title=Almohads |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150516025233/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/16820/Almohads |url-status=live}}</ref> The Almohad movement was started by [[Ibn Tumart]] among the [[Masmuda]] tribes of southern Morocco. The Almohads first established a Berber state in [[Tinmel]] in the [[Atlas Mountains]] in roughly 1120.<ref name="BritannicaAlmohads" /> The Almohads succeeded in overthrowing the [[Almoravid dynasty]] in governing Morocco by 1147, when [[Abd al-Mu'min]] (r. 1130–1163) conquered Marrakech and declared himself caliph. They then extended their power over all of the [[Maghreb]] by 1159. Al-Andalus followed the fate of Africa, and all Islamic Iberia was under Almohad rule by 1172.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Buresi |first1=Pascal |last2=El Aallaoui |first2=Hicham |title=Governing the Empire: Provincial Administration in the Almohad Caliphate (1224–1269): Critical Edition, Translation, and Study of Manuscript 4752 of the Hasaniyya Library in Rabat Containing 77 Taqādīm ('appointments') |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hl5_--mK8q4C |year=2012 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004233331}}</ref> The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when [[Muhammad al-Nasir]] (1199–1214) was defeated at the [[Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa]] in the [[Sierra Morena]] by an alliance of the Christian princes of [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]] and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]].{{Citation needed|date= January 2018}} Nearly all of the [[Moorish]] dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]] and [[Seville]] falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248, respectively. The Almohads continued to rule in northern Africa until the piecemeal loss of territory through the revolt of tribes and districts enabled the rise of their most effective enemies, the [[Marinid dynasty]], in 1215.{{Citation needed|date= January 2018}} The last representative of the line, [[Idris al-Wathiq]], was reduced to the possession of [[Marrakesh]], where he was murdered by a slave in 1269; the Marinids seized Marrakesh, ending the Almohad domination of the Western [[Maghreb]]. ====Hafsid Caliphate (1249–1574)==== {{Main|Hafsid Calipahte}} [[File:Hafsid1400.png|thumb|Hafsid Caliphate in 1400]] The Hafsids had been governors of [[Ifriqiya]] for the Almohads but declared their independence in 1229.<ref name=GES/> They claimed their descent from [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] caliph [[Omar]]. The second independent Hafsid ruler [[Muhammad I al-Mustansir]] (r. 1249–1277) declared himself caliph<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fromherz|first=Allen James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k5w7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=Near West: Medieval North Africa, Latin Europe and the Mediterranean in the Second Axial Age|year=2016|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-1-4744-1007-6|language=en|pages=113f}}</ref> and under his reign, the caliphate reached a peak.<ref name=GES/> After the fall of Baghdad, [[Marinid dynasty|Marinid]] sultan [[Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq|Abu Yusuf Yaqub]] of Morocco, [[Sharif of Mecca]] [[Abu Numayy I|Abu Numayy]] and [[Emir of Granada]] [[Muhammad I of Granada|Muhammad]] recognized the Hafsids in 1258, 1259 and 1264 respectively.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abun-Nasr |first=Jamil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC |title=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1987 |isbn=0521337674 |location=Cambridge |page=120 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author-link=Leonard Patrick Harvey |last=Leonard Patrick |first=Harvey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWyXAwAAQBAJ |title=Islamic Spain: 1250 to 1500 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2014 |isbn=9780226227740 |location=Chicago/London |page=27 |language=en}}</ref> In the mid-14th century, Morocco invaded the caliphate. The Hafsids would return to great power with [[Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II]] (r. 1394–1434) and [[Abu 'Amr 'Uthman]] (r. 1435–1488). Between 1535 and 1574, the caliphate was caught between the Ottoman and Spanish fronts and became a protectorate until it was [[Conquest of Tunis (1574)|conquered]] by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Caliphate]].<ref name=GES>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Hafsids|title=Hafsids|encyclopedia=[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]|year=1979|edition=3}}</ref>
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