Editing Calutron (section)

== Other countries ==
=== Soviet Union and China ===
Like the United States, the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) carried out research on multiple enrichment technologies for the [[Soviet atomic bomb project]]. A trial electromagnetic process was carried out in 1946 with a calutron using a magnet taken from Germany. A site was chosen for an electromagnetic plant at [[Sverdlovsk-45]] in 1946. The pilot plant, known as Plant 418, was completed in 1948. A more efficient design was developed in which the particle beams were bent by 225° instead of 180° as in the American calutron. It was used to complete the uranium enrichment process after technical difficulties were encountered with the gaseous diffusion process. Uranium enriched to about 40 percent uranium-235 was brought to Sverdlovsk-45 for final enrichment to between 92 and 98 percent. After the problems with the gaseous diffusion process were resolved in 1950, it was decided not to proceed with a full-scale electromagnetic plant.<ref name="EMIS">{{cite report|chapter= EMIS in the Soviet Union|title=Iraq's calutrons Electromagnetic isotope separation, beam technology and nuclear weapon proliferation|first1=André |last1=Gsponer |first2=Jean-Pierre |last2=Hurni |volume=ISRI-95-03 |date=19 October 1995|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Iraq/andre/ISRI-95-03.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/sverdlovsk-45_nuc.htm |title=Sverdlovsk-45 |publisher=Global Security |access-date=5 September 2015}}</ref> {{As of|2009}}, it remains operational.<ref name="Beta 3" /> In 1969, a research calutron known as S-2 was built at [[All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Physics|Arzamas-16]] for high-efficiency separation of isotopes of heavy elements like plutonium.<ref name="EMIS" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Electromagnetic separation of actinide isotopes|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms|date = 1992|volume = 70|issue = 1–4|pages = 5|doi = 10.1016/0168-583x(92)95898-2|first1 = S.M.|last1 = Abramychev|first2 = N.V.|last2 = Balashov|first3 = S.P.|last3 = Vesnovskii|first4 = V.N.|last4 = Vjachin|first5 = V.G.|last5 = Lapin|first6 = E.A.|last6 = Nikitin|first7 = V.N.|last7 = Polynov|bibcode = 1992NIMPB..70....5A}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Highly enriched isotopes of uranium and transuranium elements for scientific investigation|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms|date = 1992|pages = 9–11|volume = 70|issue = 1–4|doi = 10.1016/0168-583X(92)95899-3|first1 = Stanislav P.|last1 = Vesnovskii|first2 = Vladimir N.|last2 = Polynov|bibcode = 1992NIMPB..70....9V}}</ref>

Four research and production calutrons were built at the China Institute of Atomic Energy in Beijing of identical design to those of the USSR in the early 1960s.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Electromagnetic separation of stable isotopes at the Institute of Atomic Energy, Academia Sinica|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research|date = 1981|pages = 25–33|volume = 186|issue = 1–2|doi = 10.1016/0029-554X(81)90885-5|first1 = Hua|last1 = Ming-da|first2 = Li|last2 = Gong-pan|first3 = Su|last3 = Shi-jun|first4 = Mao|last4 = Nai-feng|first5 = Lu|last5 = Hung-yung|bibcode = 1981NIMPR.186...25M}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Some experimental studies of the calutron ion source|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research|date = 1981|volume = 186|issue = 1–2|pages = 353|doi = 10.1016/0029-554x(81)90926-5|first1 = Li|last1 = Gongpan|first2 = Li|last2 = Zengpu|first3 = Pei|last3 = Tianli|first4 = Wang|last4 = Chaoju|bibcode = 1981NIMPR.186..353G}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Electromagnetic isotope separation at the China Institute of Atomic Energy|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms|date = 1 August 1992|pages = 17–20|volume = 70|issue = 1–4|doi = 10.1016/0168-583X(92)95902-4|first1 = Li|last1 = Gongpan|first2 = Lin|last2 = Zhizhou|first3 = Xiang|last3 = Xuyang|first4 = Deng|last4 = Jingting|bibcode = 1992NIMPB..70...17G}}</ref>

=== United Kingdom ===
In 1945, the [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|British atomic bomb project]] built a 180° calutron, similar in design to an American Beta calutron, at the [[Atomic Energy Research Establishment]] at [[Harwell, Oxfordshire]]. Owing to the success of the gaseous diffusion plant at [[Capenhurst]], electromagnetic separation was not pursued by the United Kingdom, and the calutron was used to separate isotopes for research. The 180° design was not ideal for this purpose, so Harwell built a 90° calutron, HERMES, the "Heavy Elements and Radioactive Material Electromagnetic Separator".<ref>{{cite AV media| url =https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ox5yyufGFZo| title= Latest from Harwell: Introducing Hermes, the new heavy element and radioactive material electro-magnetic separator|date=4 February 1957 |publisher=British Movietone |access-date=8 November 2015}}</ref> It was inspired by France's SIDONIE and PARIS separators at the Laboratoire René Bernas of the [[University of Paris|University of Paris IX]] in [[Orsay]], and PARSIFAL at the military research laboratory of the [[Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives]] in [[Bruyères-le-Châtel]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Progress report on separators Sidonie and Paris|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods|date = 15 December 1976 |pages = 101–104|volume = 139|doi = 10.1016/0029-554X(76)90662-5|first1 = Robert|last1 = Meunier|first2 = Jean|last2 = Camplan|first3 = Jean-Luc|last3 = Bonneval|first4 = Jean-Louis|last4 = Daban-Haurou|first5 = Dominique|last5 = Deboffle|first6 = Didier|last6 = Leclercq|first7 = Marguerite|last7 = Ligonniere|first8 = Guy|last8 = Moroy|bibcode = 1976NucIM.139..101M}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Parsifal, an isotope separator for radiochemical applications|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research|date = 1 July 1981 |pages = 105–114|volume = 186|issue = 1–2|doi = 10.1016/0029-554X(81)90894-6|first1 = J.|last1 = Césario|first2 = A.|last2 = Juéry|first3 = J.|last3 = Camplan|first4 = R.|last4 = Meunier|first5 = B.|last5 = Rosenbaum|bibcode = 1981NIMPR.186..105C}}</ref> 

=== Israel, Japan, and France ===
Israel, Japan and France also built some research calutrons, including the SOLIS and MEIRA separators at the [[Soreq Nuclear Research Center]]. There is also [[CERN]]'s [[On-Line Isotope Mass Separator|Isotope Separator On-Line Detector]] (ISOLDE), which was built in 1967.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = More than three decades of ISOLDE physics|journal = Hyperfine Interactions|date = 2000|issn = 0304-3843|pages = 1–22|volume = 129|issue = 1–4|doi = 10.1023/A:1012689128103|language = en|first1 = Bjorn|last1 = Jonson|first2 = Andreas|last2 = Richter|s2cid = 121435898|bibcode = 2000HyInt.129....1J}}</ref>

=== India ===
A calutron at the [[Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics]] at [[Salt Lake City (Bidhan Nagar), Kolkata|Bidhan Nagar]] in India was used to produce plutonium for [[Smiling Buddha|India's first nuclear test]] on 18 May 1974.<ref name="EMIS" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title = A simple mass separator for radioactive isotopes|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms|date = 1987|pages = 34–36|volume = 26|issue = 1–3|doi = 10.1016/0168-583X(87)90729-4|first = S. B.|last = Karmoharpatro|bibcode = 1987NIMPB..26...34K}}</ref>

=== Iraq ===
After the 1990–91 [[Gulf War]], [[UNSCOM]] determined that Iraq had been pursuing a calutron program to enrich uranium.<ref>{{cite journal |first=William |last=Langewiesche |author-link=Langewiesche  |title=Point of No Return |journal=[[The Atlantic]] |issn=1072-7825 |date=January–February 2006 |page=107 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/01/the-point-of-no-return/304500/ |access-date=4 September 2015 }}</ref> Iraq chose to develop the electromagnetic process over more modern, economic, and efficient methods of enrichment because calutrons were easier to build, with fewer technical challenges, and the components required to build them were not subject to export controls.{{sfn|Albright|Hibbs|1991|pp=17–20}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Iraq/Calutron.html |title=Iraq's calutrons: 1991 - 2001 |last=Gsponer |first=André A. |date=31 July 2001 |website=nuclearweaponarchive.org |publisher=The Nuclear Weapon Archive |access-date=9 March 2022 |quote=}}</ref> At the time the program was discovered, Iraq was estimated to be two or three years away from producing enough material for nuclear weapons. The program was destroyed in the Gulf War.{{sfn|Albright|Hibbs|1991|p=23}} Consequently, the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] added the electromagnetic separation equipment to its guidelines for transfers of nuclear-related dual-use equipment, material and technology.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Simpson|first=John|title=NPT stronger after Iraq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQwAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA13|date=October 1991|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|volume=47|issue=8|pages=12–13|bibcode=1991BuAtS..47h..12S|doi=10.1080/00963402.1991.11460018|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=International Atomic Energy Agency|title=Communications Received from Certain Member States Regarding Guidelines for the Export of Nuclear Material, Equipment Or Technology|url=https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/infcircs/1978/infcirc254r12p1.pdf|volume=INFCIRC 254/rev. 12|access-date=6 September 2015|date=13 November 2013}}</ref>