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Causative
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===Morphological=== There are eight different morphological processes by which a causative may be marked, roughly organized by compactness:<ref name=Dixon/>{{rp|34}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! Process !! Basic Verb !! Causative Form !! Language |- | internal change || {{lang|lt|tìkti}} {{gloss|be suitable}} || {{lang|lt|táikyti}} {{gloss|make suitable}} || [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] |- | tone change || {{lang|lhu|nɔ̂}} (high falling) {{gloss|be awake}} || {{lang|lhu|nɔ̄}} (low level) {{gloss|awaken, rouse}} || [[Lahu language|Lahu]] |- | consonant repetition || {{Transliteration|afb|xarab}} {{gloss|go bad}} || {{Transliteration|afb|xarrab}} {{gloss|make go bad, ruin}} || [[Gulf Arabic]] |- | vowel lengthening || {{Transliteration|ks|mar}} {{gloss|die}} || {{Transliteration|ks|ma:r}} {{gloss|kill}} || [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] |- | reduplication || {{Transliteration|jv|bengok}} {{gloss|shout}} || {{Transliteration|jv|be-bengok}} {{gloss|make shout}} || [[Javanese language|Javanese]] |- | prefix || {{Transliteration|am|gǝbba}} {{gloss|enter}} || {{Transliteration|am|a-gǝbba}} {{gloss|insert}} || [[Amharic language|Amharic]] |- | suffix || {{lang|quc|-kam-}} {{gloss|die}} || {{lang|quc|-kam-isa-}} {{gloss|kill}} || [[Kʼicheʼ language|Kʼicheʼ]] |- | circumfix || {{Transliteration|ka|-č'am-}} {{gloss|eat}} || {{Transliteration|ka|-a-č'm-ev-}} {{gloss|feed (make eat)}} || [[Georgian language|Georgian]] |} Within morphological causatives, this degree of compactness bears an important variable when considering the semantics of the two processes. For example, mechanisms that do not change the length of the word (internal change, tone change) are shorter than those that lengthen it. Of those that lengthen it, shorter changes are more compact than longer. Verbs can be classified into four categories, according to how susceptible they are to morphological causativization:<ref name=Shibatani/>{{rp|4–11}} # Inactive intransitives (''faint'') # Middle/ingestive verbs (either intransitive or transitive such as ''sit down'', ''ascend'', ''put clothes on'', ''eat'', or ''learn'') # Active intransitives (''work'') # Transitive verbs (''carry'') This hierarchy has some exceptions, but it does generally hold true. For example, given a text of [[Guarani language|Guarani]], only about 16% of causatives apply to transitives.<ref name=Shibatani/>{{rp|5}} For some languages, it may not apply to transitive verbs [[productivity (linguistics)|productively]] and may only apply to verbs that denote abstract action or consumption of food. Additionally, within [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]] family, all languages can causativize inactive intransitives, but not all of them can causativize active intransitives or even transitives.<ref name=Shibatani/>{{rp|5}}
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