Editing Changeable hawk-eagle (section)

==Behaviour and ecology==
[[File:Nisaetus cirrhatus eating Gallus sonneratii.ogv|thumb|Changeable hawk-eagle eating [[grey junglefowl]] in [[Bandipur National Park]]]]
[[File:Crested hawk-eagle (Nisaetus cirrhatus ceylanensis) feeding on egret.jpg|thumb|Changeable hawk-eagle eating an egret in [[Sri Lanka]]]]
[[File:Crested hawk-eagle (Nisaetus cirrhatus cirrhatus) with Indian garden lizard.jpg|thumb|Changeable hawk-eagle with Indian garden lizard in [[Satpura National Park]]]]
Changeable hawk-eagles are at home in a variety of wooded and semi-open habitats. Their physical form and flight style is typical of forest-dwelling raptors in general and is often compared to the features of [[Accipiter|true hawks or ''Accipiters'']] in particular larger species such as [[Northern goshawk|goshawks]]. Like most other forest raptors, changeable hawk-eagles (and ''Nisaetus'' species in general) have a long tail, short broad wings and relatively long but powerful legs, all of which impart greater maneuverability and quicker strike times in denser wooded hunting grounds than other raptorial body plans. The common name hawk-eagle is apparently in reference to their similar adaptations to true hawks.<ref name=Naoroji/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Petty, S. J. |title=Ecology and conservation of raptors in forests |publisher=HMSO Publications Centre |year=1998}}</ref> Even compared to the variable prey of large goshawks, the prey selection of changeable hawk-eagles appears to be somewhat indiscriminate and opportunistic.<ref name=Naoroji/><ref>{{Cite book |last=K. |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_tGnSRa0S6sC&pg=PA274 |title=The Goshawk |publisher=T & A D Poyser |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7136-6565-9 |location=London |page=274}}</ref> Unfortunately, compared to tropical raptors from the [[neotropic]]s and especially [[Africa]], the life histories of raptors from tropical Asia are generally quite poorly-known, even in the case of easily observed raptors such as changeable hawk-eagles.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Whitacre, D. F. |title=Neotropical birds of prey: biology and ecology of a forest raptor community |last2=Jenny, J. P. |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2013 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref><ref>Steyn, P. (1983). ''Birds of prey of southern Africa: Their identification and life histories''. Croom Helm, Beckenham (UK).</ref> Therefore, what is known of changeable hawk-eagles dietary biology is largely drawn together based on reliable eye-witness and anecdotal accounts, photographic evidence and wide-ranging bird census surveys, rather than direct, extensive study.<ref name=Naoroji/> The changeable hawk-eagle can show a slight preference for birds as prey, but also freely takes various [[mammal]]s, [[reptile]]s and some other [[vertebrate]]s whenever they opportune upon them.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Naoroji/> Although little quantitative analysis has gone into their dietary habits, many prey items taken are relatively small. On the other hand, Brown & Amadon (1986) description of this species as "not a very rapacious bird" is not entirely justified as extremely large prey relative to the hawk-eagle's size may also be readily taken.<ref name=Naoroji/><ref name= Brown/><ref name="Fam">{{Cite journal |last1=Fam |first1=S. D. |last2=Nijman |first2=V. |date=2011 |title=Spizaetus hawk-eagles as predators of arboreal colobines |journal=Primates |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=105–110 |doi=10.1007/s10329-011-0240-z |pmid=21340695 |s2cid=823942}}</ref> Like many tropical forest raptors, they are primarily ambush predators who use concealing foliage to still-hunt from hidden branch or open branch with a leafy background, pouncing fast to take most of their prey on the ground. Like goshawks, changeable hawk-eagles often perch-hunts which are short, low-level flights from perch to perch interspersed with brief pauses, during which they scan for potential prey. Perch-hunting lends them the greatest success when hunting birds that they will capture in the trees.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Naoroji/> At least a few cases have been observed of changeable hawk-eagles watching for and then dropping on prey directly from their own nest.<ref name=Naoroji/>

[[File:Hawks (Nagzira) India.jpg|thumb|Changeable hawk-eagle eating a [[monitor lizard]] in [[Maharashtra]]]]
One of the only general analysis of the quantitative food preferences of the changeable hawk-eagle (although detailed prey analysis, including prey species, was not specified), was a study of this species in contrast with five other raptor species in the [[Maharashtra]] of India. This showed that they had a preference for birds as prey, with nearly equal number of birds classified as small or large making up nearly half of their diet in 14 active territories. Furthermore, their prey selection was found to be somewhat similar by class to that of [[Bonelli's eagle]] (''Aquila fasciata''), an eagle of much more open and rocky habitats, but the changeable hawk-eagle took the highest class diversity of prey of any of the six raptors studied and was the only one to hunt near heavily wooded areas.<ref name="Pande">{{Cite journal |last1=Pande |first1=S. |last2=Yosef |first2=R. |last3=Morelli |first3=F. |last4=Pawar |first4=R. |last5=Mone |first5=R. |date=2018 |title=Diet and habitat affinities in six raptor species in India |journal=Avian Research |volume=9 |issue=1 |doi=10.1186/s40657-018-0129-2 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Primary prey by class differed in [[West Java]], where 62% of prey selected was reptiles, 24% birds and 12% mammals.<ref name=Gunawan>{{Cite journal |last1=Gunawan |last2=N. |first2=S. |last3=Noske |first3=R. A. |date=2017 |title=Nest cycle and nestling development of a pair of Changeable Hawk-Eagles ''Nisaetus cirrhatus'' in Gunung Halimun-Salak National Park, West Java |url=https://kukila.org/index.php/KKL/article/view/507/498 |journal=Kukila |volume=20 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Elsewhere in India, prey selection at the nest showed what prey species were selected by changeable hawk-eagles but lacked any quantitative data or studies on prey biomass. One study in [[Gujarat]] showed several rather small prey species largely being taken such as the [[Indian chameleon]] (''Chamaeleo zeylanicus''), [[Oriental garden lizard]] (''Calotes versicolor''), other lizards, [[common myna]] (''Acridotheres tristis''), [[red-vented bulbul]] (''Pycnonotus cafer''), other birds (including unidentified [[Psittacula|parakeet]]s and [[gamebird]]s), [[Indian bush rat]] (''Golunda ellioti'') and a [[Funambulus|palm squirrel]]. The identified prey would vary in size only from {{cvt|35|g}} for a garden lizard to {{cvt|117|g}} for a myna with the small lizards and chameleons reportedly the most often delivered prey.<ref name= Naoroji/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Radder |first1=R. S. |last2=Shanbhag |first2=B. A. |last3=Saidapur |first3=S. K. |date=2002 |title=Pattern of yolk internalization by hatchlings is related to breeding timing in the garden lizard, ''Calotes versicolor'' |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24106186 |journal=Current Science |volume=82 |issue=12 |pages=1484–1486 |jstor=24106186}}</ref><ref name="CRC">''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), {{ISBN|978-1-4200-6444-5}}.</ref> In [[Mudumalai National Park]], only three prey types were specified to genera which consisted of [[black-hooded oriole]] (''Orolus xanthornus''), [[Dendrelaphis tristis|common bronzeback snake]] (''Dendrelaphis tristis'') and an unidentified [[Ratufa|giant squirrel]].<ref name=Naoroji/> Not all nests have relatively small prey, as one nest in northern India showed a prey composition of [[red junglefowl]] (''Gallus gallus''), large [[woodpecker]]s such as [[Dinopium|flamebacks]] and larger [[parakeet]]s.<ref name=Naoroji/> Alongside various junglefowl and the domestic [[chicken]] derived from them, virtually any [[gamebird]] seem to be nearly ideal prey for changeable hawk-eagles and several species, including [[peafowl]], [[bush quail]], [[Galloperdix|spurfowl]] and [[francolin]]s, are known to be hunted, including both young and adults.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Naoroji/><ref name=Brown/> Many other birds with partial terrestrial habits seem to be taken quite widely including various [[Columbidae|pigeons and dove]]s, [[Rail (bird)|rails]] and other [[water bird]]s.<ref name=Gunawan/><ref>Wells, D.R. (1999). ''The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Vol. 1, Non-Passerines''. Academic Press, London.</ref><ref>Tehsin, R.H. (1982). ''Collective defensive strategy in Blue Rock Pigeon (''Columba livia'')''. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 79: 414.</ref><ref>Wee, Y. C. & Wang, L. K. (2009). ''Observation On The In-Captivity Development Of A Rescued Chick Of The Striated Heron, ''Butorides striatus'' (Linnaeus)''. Nature in Singapore 2009, 193–202.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murukesh |first1=M. Divin |last2=Balakrishnan |first2=P. |date=2015 |title=On the breeding of the Slaty-legged Crake (Aves: Rallidae: Rallina eurizonoides) in Nilambur, Kerala, southern India |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=7298–7301 |doi=10.11609/JoTT.o4185.7298-301 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pathak, B. J. |last2=Vijayan, S. |last3=Pati, B. P. |name-list-style=amp |year=2004 |title=Observations on chick mortality in Darter ''Anhinga melanogaster'' in Gir Forest |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=101 |issue=2 |page=310}}</ref>

The upper size limit for changeable hawk-eagle prey seems to be fairly liquid and the species is quite the equal of various other [[Aquilinae|booted eagles]] in making bold attacks on prey of their own size or larger.<ref name= Naoroji/><ref name=Fam/> Many of the mammals reported as preyed upon by changeable hawk-eagles are quite large. Mammalian prey taken as adults has included [[hispid hare]]s (''Lepus hispidus'') with a median estimated weight of {{cvt|2.35|kg}}, [[Indian hare]] (''Lepus nigricollis'') with a median mass of {{cvt|2.7|kg}}, {{cvt|1.3|kg}} [[Indian flying fox]] (''Pteropus giganteus'') and nearly any species of [[Ratufa|giant squirrel]], which can vary in weight between {{cvt|1.1|and|3|kg}}.<ref name=Naoroji/><ref name=Fam/><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Datta, A. |year=1998 |title=Anti-predatory response of the Indian giant squirrel ''Ratufa indica'' to predation attempts by the Crested Hawk Eagle ''Spizaetus cirrhatus limnaetus'' |journal= Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=95 |pages=332––335}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Thomas, K. |author2=Das, A. A. |author3=Nameer, P. O. |year=2017  |title=A Report on the predation of Grizzled Giant Squirrel (''Ratufa macroura'') by Changeable Hawk-Eagle (''Nisaetus cirrhatus''), from Western Ghats, South India |journal=Zoo's Print |volume=32 |issue=4 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Even more impressive accounts and photos show that changeable hawk-eagle can hunt and kill adult mammals with formidable defenses such as [[felid]]s and [[primate]]s, although it cannot be ruled out that they will usually attack infirm or injured specimens rather than healthy ones. Furthermore, most accounts of attacks on [[Old World monkey]]s show juveniles are by far the most vulnerable members of their troops to hawk-eagle attacks. Cases of either verified, likely or potential predation have been reported on [[northern pig-tailed macaque]] (''Macaca leonina''), [[crab-eating macaque]] (''Macaca fascicularis''), [[toque macaque]] (''Macaca sinica'') and [[lion-tailed macaque]] (''Macaca silenus''), including specimens potentially to weigh up to an estimated {{cvt|6|kg}}.<ref name=Fam/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Erinjery |first1=J. J. |last2=Kumara |first2=H. N. |last3=Mohan |first3=K. |last4=Singh |first4=M. |date=2017 |title=Interactions of lion-tailed macaque (''Macaca silenus'') with non-primates in the Western Ghats, India  |journal=Current Science |volume=112 |issue=10 |pages=2129–2134 |doi=10.18520/cs/v112/i10/2129-2134 |jstor=26163955}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=José-Domínguez |first1=J. M. |last2=Asensio |first2=N. |last3=García |first3=C. J. G. |last4=Huynen |first4=M.-C. |last5=Savini |first5=T. |date=2015 |title=Exploring the Multiple Functions of Sleeping Sites in Northern Pigtailed Macaques (''Macaca leonina'') |journal=International Journal of Primatology |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=948–966 |doi=10.1007/s10764-015-9865-x |s2cid=254543922}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dittus |first=W. P. J. |title=Socioecology and Psychology of Primates |date=1975-12-31 |chapter=Population Dynamics of the Toque Monkey, Macaca sinica |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110803839.125/html |publisher=DE GRUYTER MOUTON |pages=125–152 |doi=10.1515/9783110803839.125 |isbn=978-90-279-7709-0}}</ref> A case of predation was photographed by a changeable hawk-eagle on an estimated {{cvt|1.9|kg}} juvenile [[banded langur]] (''Presbytis femoralis'') while possible cases have been reported of predation on juveniles of other [[langur]]s as well as additional larger primates such as [[gibbon]]s and [[proboscis monkey]]s (''Nasalis larvatus'').<ref name= Fam/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schaik |first1=C. P. van |last2=Hörstermann |first2=M. |date=1994 |title=Predation risk and the number of adult males in a primate group: a comparative test |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=261–272 |doi=10.1007/BF00170707 |bibcode=1994BEcoS..35..261S |s2cid=20638264}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mcgraw |first1=W. S. |last2=Berger |first2=L. R. |date=2013 |title=Raptors and primate evolution |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews |language=en |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=280–293 |doi=10.1002/evan.21378 |pmid=24347501 |s2cid=24632658}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harding |first=L. E. |date=2015 |title=''Nasalis larvatus'' (Primates: Colobini) |journal=Mammalian Species |volume=47 |issue=926 |pages=84–99 |doi=10.1093/mspecies/sev009 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=E. |last2=Reichard |first2=Ulrich H. |last3=Zuberbühler |first3=Klaus |date=January 2012 |title=The anti-predator behaviour of wild white-handed gibbons (''Hylobates lar'') |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=85–96 |doi=10.1007/s00265-011-1256-5 |bibcode=2012BEcoS..66...85C |s2cid=253812199}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dooley |first1=H. M. |last2=Judge |first2=D. S. |date=2015 |title=Kloss gibbon (''Hylobates klossii'') behavior facilitates the avoidance of human predation in the Peleonan forest, Siberut Island, Indonesia |journal=American Journal of Primatology |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=296–308 |doi=10.1002/ajp.22345 |pmid=25296898 |s2cid=161693}}</ref> While their predator-prey relationship is even more nebulous, the peculiar, smaller but toxic nocturnal primates known as [[slow loris]]es are known to fall prey as well to changeable hawk-eagles.<ref>Fullera, G., Nijmana, V., Wirdatetic, K. A. I., & Nijman, V. ''Slow Lorises: 1 avian predators?''</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Svensson |first1=M. S. |last2=Nekaris |first2=K.A.I. |last3=Bearder |first3=S. K. |last4=Bettridge |first4=C. M. |last5=Butynski |first5=T. M. |last6=Cheyne |first6=S. M. |last7=Das |first7=N. |last8=de Jong |first8=Y. A. |last9=Luhrs |first9=A. M. |last10=Luncz |first10=L. V. |last11=Maddock |first11=S. T. |last12=Perkin |first12=A. |last13=Pimley |first13=E. |last14=Poindexter |first14=S. A. |last15=Reinhardt |first15=K. D. |date=2018 |title=Sleep patterns, daytime predation, and the evolution of diurnal sleep site selection in lorisiforms |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=166 |issue=3 |pages=563–577 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.23450 |doi-access=free |pmid=29989160 |hdl=2436/621568 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> There are several accounts of predation by changeable hawk-eagles on domestic [[cat]]s (''Felis catus''), though largely kittens, in addition to a case of a large adult [[jungle cat]] (''Felis chaus''), with an estimated median weight of {{cvt|7.3|kg}}, being attacked and killed by one of these hawk-eagles.<ref name=Naoroji/><ref name=Fam/><ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Kasambe, R. |year=2004 |title=Crested Hawk Eagle (''Spizaetus cirrhatus'') foraging on Jungle Cat (''Felis chaus'') |journal=Newsletter for Birdwatchers |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=14–15}}</ref> Apparently, the changeable hawk-eagle is also counted among the predators of calves of [[Indian gazelle]]s (''Gazella bennetti'').<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dookia |first1=S. |title=Status of the Indian Gazelle (''Gazella bennettii'' Sykes, 1831) in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, India |last2=Rawat |first2=M. |last3=Jakher |first3=G. R. |last4=Dookia |first4=B. R. |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-540-87408-9 |editor-last=Sivaperuman |editor-first=C. |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |pages=193–207 |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-87409-6_15 |editor-last2=Baqri |editor-first2=Q. H. |editor-last3=Ramaswamy |editor-first3=G. |editor-last4=Naseema |editor-first4=M.}}</ref> Adults of large [[monitor lizard]]s of a few species may be also included in their prey spectrum.<ref name=Naoroji/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Karaunarthna, S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Surasinghe, T. |author3=Dissayake, D. |author4=Boutejue, M. |author5=Gabadage, D. |author6=Madawala, M. |year=2017 |title=Dietary habits and the predators of the Bengal Monitor ''Varanus bengalensis'' in Sri Lanka |journal=Biawak |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=28–39}}</ref> Avian kills include adult [[Indian peafowl]] (''Pavo cristatus''), of an estimated weight of up to {{cvt|4|kg}}, and the species is considered a threat as well to the similar [[green peafowl]] (''Pavo muticus'').<ref name=Fam/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dhanwatey, A. S. |year=1986 |title=A Crested Hawk-Eagle ''Spizaetus cirrhatus'' (Gmelin) killing a Peafowl ''Pavo cristatus'' Linnaeus |journal= Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=83 |issue=4 |page=202}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hernowo |first1=J. B. |last2=Mardiastuti |first2=A. |last3=Alikodra |first3=H. S. |last4=Kusmana |first4=C. |date=2011 |title=Behavior Ecology of the Javan Green Peafowl (''Pavo muticus muticus'' Linnaeus 1758) in Baluran and Alas Purwo National Park, East Java |journal=HAYATI Journal of Biosciences |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=164–176 |doi=10.4308/hjb.18.4.164 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Attempted predation on both {{cvt|4.2|kg}} adult and young [[giant ibis]] (''Thaumatibis gigantea'') have been recorded but all known attacks were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Keo |first1=O. |last2=Collar |first2=N. J. |last3=Sutherland |first3=W. J. |date=2009 |title=Nest protectors provide a cost-effective means of increasing breeding success in Giant Ibis ''Thaumatibis gigantea'' |journal=Bird Conservation International |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=77–82 |doi=10.1017/S0959270908008319 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Cases of scavenging on carcasses of various [[deer]] and [[monkey]] have been reported as well, in one case a hawk-eagle was filmed chasing an adult [[yellow-throated marten]] (''Martes flavigula'') from a carcass.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bhandari, A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Goyal, N. |year=2018 |title=Changeable Hawk Eagle Nisaetus cirrhatus scavenging |journal=Indian Birds |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=159–160}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Pierce, A. J.|name-list-style=amp |author2=Sukumal, N. |author3=Khamcha, D. |year=2014 |title=A Yellow-throated Marten ''Martes flavigula'' feeding on a Red Muntjac ''Muntiacus muntjak'' carcass |journal=Small Carnivore Conservation |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=76–78}}</ref> Changeable hawk-eagles were also observing preying on predating on Oriental pied hornbills (''Anthracoceros albirostris'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=T. |last2=Lodhi |first2=N. |last3=Gupta |first3=M. |date=2023 |title=Observations of Changeable Hawk Eagles (''Nisaetus cirrhatus'') predating on Oriental Pied Hornbills (''Anthracoceros albirostris'') |journal=Indian Birds |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=84–85}}</ref>

===Food and feeding===
The habitat selection and overall distribution of the changeable hawk-eagle is largely concurrent with other largish raptors such as the [[crested serpent eagle]] and the [[crested honey buzzard]], apparently the three species are largely tolerant and non-aggressive towards each other, perhaps surprisingly given the otherwise aggressive habits of hawk-eagles. Unsurprisingly, these species have quite discrepant [[ecological niche]]s, especially in terms of their dietary habits.<ref name=Naoroji/> Although nest predators are probably profuse, parent changeable hawk-eagles are likely to aggressive displace most potential threats. No verified accounts of predation are known in the wild and the species often likely fulfills the role of an [[apex predator]].<ref name=Naoroji/> They are presumably able to persist alongside larger cousins such as [[mountain hawk-eagle]]s and with [[Legge's hawk-eagle]] by focusing more so on reptiles and birds rather than the mammalian prey likely preferred by the larger species (as well as perhaps focusing primarily on a smaller class of prey), although it is somewhat more adaptable in habitat than both other species.<ref name=Naoroji/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gjershaug |first1=J. O. |last2=Diserud |first2=O. H. |last3=Rasmussen |first3=P. C. |last4=Warakagoda |first4=D. |date=2008 |title=An overlooked threatened species of eagle: Legge's Hawk Eagle ''Nisaetus kelaarti'' (Aves: Accipitriformes) |journal=Zootaxa |volume=1792 |issue=1 |pages=54 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.1792.1.4 |doi-access=free}}</ref> They are also found living alongside the much larger [[Philippine eagle]] (''Pithecophaga jefferyi'') and are likely to similarly take smaller prey and avoid direct encounters with the much less numerous giant eagle.<ref name=Preleuthner/> In turn, changeable hawk-eagles are likely avoided in encounters with smaller forest raptors such as other, smaller ''[[Nisaetus]]'' species, which often focus slightly less on birds than the changeable, and ''[[Accipiter]]'' hawks, which all subsist largely on rather smaller classes of prey.<ref name=Naoroji/><ref name=Preleuthner/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prawiradilaga |first=D. M. |date=2006 |title=Ecology and conservation of endangered Javan Hawk-eagle ''Spizaetus bartelsi'' |url=http://joi.jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JSTAGE/osj/5.177?from=CrossRef |journal=Ornithological Science |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=177–186 |doi=10.2326/osj.5.177|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Apparently, changeable hawk-eagle are considered likely predators (on fledglings?) of the slightly smaller [[Indian spotted eagle]]s (''Clanga hastata'').<ref>Sant, N., Shelke, V., & Shelke, S. (2006). ''On the breeding biology of the Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata''. Indian Birds.</ref> However, on the contrary, one case of predation was reported in captivity when a [[barred eagle-owl]] (''Bubo sumatranus''), which is found in the wild with changeable hawk-eagles in [[southeast Asia]], killed a changeable hawk-eagle in an aviary.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=König |first1=C. |title=Owls of the World |last2=Weick, F. |publisher=Christopher Helm |year=2008 |isbn=9781408108840 |edition=2nd |location=London}}</ref>

===Breeding===
The changeable hawk-eagle is, like many raptorial birds, a largely solitary bird otherwise but during breeding, stays in a dedicated pairs that often mate for life. Each pair engages in a territorial display over the fringes of their home range. This aerial display is usually engaged in by a male but sometimes the female or both members of the pair will engage in displays, often starting with their wings and tail arched upwards in exaggerated poises. During the display, the shoot up vertically and nose-diving or stooping, if the rival hawk-eagle continues to engage the defending individual, they will fly at each other at "lightening speed" doing a complete loop-the-loop turn in air. They often call loudly throughout the display.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Naoroji/><ref name=Ali/> The breeding season of changeable hawk-eagles falls from November to May in southern India, peaking January–March, while it is more confined to January–April in the more temperate climate of the Himalayan foothills. The breeding season from India is comparable in Sri Lanka but is slightly more prolonged in the latter country, continuing at times into June. However, peak laying dates fall earlier, around January–February, in Sri Lanka.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Brown/> In the equatorial [[Sunda Islands|Greater Sunda islands]], eggs have been recorded in 8 different months at any time from December to October with peak activity falling usually between February and August. Apparently, the highest volume of eggs laid here fall in two separate periods, February–March and July–August. Thus, the breeding season is more elastic in tropical forests areas but in northern part of range the breeding season centers around the cooler [[dry season]].<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Brown/>  This species builds a largish stick nest. Typical dimensions of their nest is {{cvt|95|to|105|cm}} across while nest depth can range from {{cvt|35|to|120|cm}} the latter after repeated uses and additions.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Brown/> Some nests are very large relative to the size of these eagles. One nest reached an diameter on the inside of {{cvt|1.3|m}} and a circumference of {{cvt|3.45|m}}.<ref name=Naoroji/> Active nests are lined with green leaves. Both members of the pair participate in building new nests and take part in repairs.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Brown/> Nests are often solidly built and resilient, more so than those of other medium-sized eagles, against high winds and monsoons.<ref name=Naoroji/> Nest height is often from {{cvt|6|to|50|m}} in the crown or high fork of a large tree, but is usually not less than {{cvt|12|m}} off the ground.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Brown/> Nest height in the Indian subcontinent was typically around {{cvt|12|to|25|m}}, averaging {{cvt|17|m}} in the [[Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary]] and {{cvt|19|m}} in the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]], and could be in a wide diversity of trees.<ref name=Naoroji/> Nesting sites are often near a stream, or otherwise perhaps near a ravine with wide view but sometimes varies from deep forest to isolated trees on village edges.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/> In the peri-urban green spaces of [[Singapore]], changeable hawk-eagles nested mostly on ''[[Albizia]]'' trees, which are among the fastest-growing and tallest trees in these secondary forests.<ref>Tan, K.H. (2005). ''The status and distribution of Changeable Hawk-eagle (Nisaetus cirrhatus) in Singapore''. Singapore Bird Group.</ref> The parents tend to allow closer approach by humans when living in vicinity of villages.<ref name=Brown/>

Only one egg is known to be laid by changeable hawk-eagles. The egg tends to be coarse and glossless, largely white but sparely and faintly speckled or blotched with light reddish. Egg sizes were reportedly measured in the nominate subspecies (sample of 40) as ranging from {{cvt|65.3|to|73|mm}} in height with an average of {{cvt|68|mm}} by a diameter of {{cvt|49.9|to|53.3|mm}} with an average of {{cvt|52|mm}}. In the race ''N. c. ceylanensis'', a sample of 24 eggs averaged {{cvt|61.3|x|49.8|mm}}. In ''N. c. limnaeetus'' from northern India, 18 eggs averaged {{cvt|69.8|x|51.6|mm}}. In the same subspecies, eggs from [[Java]] and [[Borneo]] ranged from {{cvt|61|to|68.8|mm}} in height and from {{cvt|50|to|54|mm}} in diameter. In the race ''N. c. andamanensis'', the average was reportedly {{cvt|62.2|x|50.1|mm}} but the sample size is unknown.<ref name=Brown/> Apparently, the female alone incubates, for a period estimated at 40 days.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Brown/> After the nestling hatches, the female will brood intensively for about 25 days.<ref name=Naoroji/> An Indian nestling was found to weigh {{cvt|300|g}} at 14 days and grew to {{cvt|450|g}} by 20 days, having developed a vocabulary of ''cheep'' notes to express hunger and alarm. The eaglet may be preening, standing more and wing flapping by 4 to 5 weeks old, and may also be encouraged to eat at by its mother, however consuming a single food item may take up to 6 hours at this point.<ref name=Naoroji/><ref name=Brown/> At 35 days, the nestling may be brooded progressively less and feather and body size growth accelerates. Within a couple of weeks, prey is delivered (often by both parents at this stage) to nearby branches rather than directly to the nest with the parents calling as they approach, apparently encouraging the young eaglet to venture out of the nest.<ref name=Naoroji/><ref name=Brown/> By 52 days of age, the eaglet is fully-grown but does not fledge until about 60–68 days.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Naoroji/> The total nest dependency was recorded as 81 days in India.<ref name=Naoroji/> However, the total breeding cycle was recorded as lasting about 112 days in [[West Java]].<ref name=Gunawan/>