Editing Civil engineering (section)

==Sub-disciplines==
[[File:Akashi-kaikyo bridge3.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|The [[Akashi Kaikyō Bridge]] in Japan, currently the world's second-longest suspension span.]]
There are a number of sub-disciplines within the broad field of civil engineering. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading, drainage, [[Pavement (material)|pavement]], water supply, sewer service, dams, electric and communications supply. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Site engineers spend time visiting project sites, meeting with stakeholders, and preparing construction plans. Civil engineers apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction.

===Coastal engineering===
{{Main|Coastal engineering|Coastal management}}
[[File:Oosterscheldekering, Netherlands.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Oosterscheldekering]], a [[storm surge barrier]] in the Netherlands.]]
''Coastal engineering'' is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions, the terms sea defense and coastal protection mean defense against flooding and erosion, respectively. Coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become popular as well.

===Construction engineering===
{{Main|Construction engineering}}
''Construction engineering'' involves planning and execution, transportation of materials, and site development based on hydraulic, environmental, structural, and geotechnical engineering. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, construction engineers often engage in more business-like transactions, such as drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating [[Logistics|logistical operations]], and monitoring supply prices.[[File:CBQreview.jpeg|thumb|Image shows civil engineers working/planning on a site]]

===Earthquake engineering===
{{Main|Earthquake engineering}}
[[File:Snapshot of earthquake-like crash testing.jpg|thumb|Earthquake Crash Testing, performed by engineers to determine the liability of structures]]
''Earthquake engineering'' involves designing structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures. Earthquake engineering is a sub-discipline of structural engineering. The main objectives of earthquake engineering are<ref>{{citation |last1=Chen |first1=W-F |last2=Scawthorn |first2=C. |title=Earthquake Engineering Handbook |publisher=CRC Press |date=2003 |isbn=0-8493-0068-1 |chapter=Chapter 2}}</ref> to understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground; foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes; and design, construct and maintain structures to [[seismic performance|perform]] at earthquake in compliance with [[building code]]s.

===Environmental engineering===
{{Main|Environmental engineering}}
[[File:Creek Water Pollution.jpg|right|thumbnail|upright=1.15|Creek contaminated with water pollution]]
''Environmental engineering'' is the contemporary term for [[sanitary engineering]], though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by environmental engineering. Public health engineering and environmental health engineering are other terms being used.

Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes, purification of water and air, and [[Environmental remediation|remediation]] of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, [[water purification]], [[waste water treatment]], air pollution, [[Waste management|solid waste treatment]], [[recycling]], and [[hazardous waste|hazardous waste management]]. Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, [[green engineering]], and [[industrial ecology]]. Environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions.

===Forensic engineering===
{{Main|Forensic engineering}}
''Forensic engineering'' is the investigation of materials, [[Product (business)|products]], structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. The consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability. The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. The subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases, although it may be of use in criminal law cases. Generally the purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident. It can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims, especially [[patent]]s.

===Geotechnical engineering===
{{Main|Geotechnical engineering}}
[[File:Soil-phase-diagram.svg|thumb|A phase diagram of soil indicating the weights and volumes of air, soil, water, and voids.]]
''Geotechnical engineering'' studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems. Knowledge from the field of [[soil science]], materials science, [[mechanics]], and [[hydraulics]] is applied to safely and economically design [[foundation (engineering)|foundations]], [[retaining wall]]s, and other structures. Environmental efforts to protect [[groundwater]] and safely maintain landfills have spawned a new area of research called geo-environmental engineering.<ref name="mitchell">{{cite book |last=Mitchell |first=James Kenneth |date=1993 |title=Fundamentals of Soil Behavior |edition=2nd |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |pages=1–2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shroff |first1=Arvind V. |last2=Shah |first2=Dhananjay L. |date=2003 |title=Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering |publisher=Taylor & Francis |pages=1–2}}</ref>

Identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical engineers. [[Boundary condition]]s are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but unlike steel or concrete, the material properties and behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability and limitation on [[geotechnical investigation|investigation]]. Furthermore, soil exhibits nonlinear ([[stress (physics)|stress]]-dependent) [[shear strength (soil)|strength]], stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated with application of [[shear stress]]), making studying [[soil mechanics]] all the more difficult.<ref name="mitchell"/> Geotechnical engineers frequently work with professional [[geologists]],  [[Geological Engineering]] professionals and soil scientists.<ref>{{cite web |title=Geotechnical/Geological Engineering |url=https://www.ausimm.com.au/content/docs/careers_booklet_geotgeoleng.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720101333/http://www2.ausimm.com.au/content/docs/careers_booklet_geotgeoleng.pdf |archive-date=2008-07-20 |url-status=live |website=Professional Careers in the Mineral Industry |publisher=The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy |access-date=30 May 2018}}</ref>

===Materials science and engineering===
{{Main|Materials science}}
''Materials science'' is closely related to civil engineering. It studies fundamental characteristics of materials, and deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and [[thermosetting polymer]]s including [[polymethylmethacrylate]] (PMMA) and carbon fibers.

''Materials engineering'' involves protection and prevention (paints and finishes). Alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties. It incorporates elements of [[applied physics]] and [[chemistry]]. With recent media attention on [[nanoscience]] and [[nanotechnology]], materials engineering has been at the forefront of academic research. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and [[failure analysis]].

===Site development and planning===
{{see also|Land development|urban planning}}
[[File:Palmetto Springs pedestrian village.png|thumb|Plan draft of proposed mixed-use site]]
''Site development'', also known as ''site planning'', is focused on the planning and development potential of a site as well as addressing possible impacts from [[Building permit|permitting]] issues and [[Environmental impact assessment|environmental challenges]].<ref name="site">{{cite web |title=Site Development and Planning |url=https://nobis-group.com/markets/site-development/#:~:text=Site%20Development%20and%20Planning%2C%20Site%20Civil%20Engineering%2C%20Land,make%20the%20most%20out%20of%20your%20unique%20site. |website=Nobis Group |access-date=September 7, 2020}}</ref>

===Structural engineering===
{{Main|Structural engineering}}
[[File:Burj Dubai Evolution.ogv|right|thumb|[[Burj Khalifa]] animation of construction process|thumbtime=0:23]]
[[File:Construcción de una cimentación por zapata aislada.ogv|thumb|left|[[Shallow foundation]] construction example]]
''Structural engineering'' is concerned with the [[structural design]] and [[structural analysis]] of buildings, bridges, [[tower]]s, [[overpass|flyovers]] (overpasses), tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, [[aerostructure]] and other structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for (to be ''serviceable''). Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including [[wind engineering]] and earthquake engineering.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Narayanan |first1=R |first2=A |last2=Beeby |title=Introduction to Design for Civil Engineers |location=London |publisher=Spon |date=2003}}</ref>

Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, constructibility, safety, aesthetics and [[sustainability]].

===Surveying===
{{Main|Surveying|Construction surveying}}
 
''Surveying'' is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment such as levels and theodolites are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerization, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have to a large extent supplanted traditional instruments. Data collected by survey measurement is converted into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a structure must be sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures.
[[File:Airmen conduct civil engineering action 120229-F-XF291-010.jpg|thumb|Leveling a tripod before setting EDM]]
Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as well as [[geographic information system]]s. Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways, [[tramway track]]s, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructure, such as [[harbor]]s, before construction.

;Land surveying
[[File:Us_land_survey_officer.jpg|thumb|Looking through EDM]]

In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a separate and distinct profession. [[Surveying#Cadastral surveying|Land surveyors]] are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licensing requirements. The services of a licensed land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both of which are generally referred to as [[Cadastral surveying]]. They collect data on important geological features below and on the land.[[File:Bureau of Land Management Cadastral Survey Marker Arizona.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|[[Bureau of Land Management|BLM]] [[cadastral]] survey marker from 1992 in [[San Xavier, Arizona]].]]

;Construction surveying
Construction surveying is generally performed by specialized technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks:
* Surveying existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and underground infrastructure when possible;
* "lay-out" or "setting-out": placing reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings;
* Verifying the location of structures during construction;
* As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans.

===Transportation engineering===
{{Main|Transportation engineering}}''Transportation engineering'' is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, [[rail transport|rail systems]], airports, ports, and [[mass transit]]. It includes areas such as transportation design, [[transportation planning]], [[traffic engineering (transportation)|traffic engineering]], some aspects of [[municipal or urban engineering|urban engineering]], [[queueing theory]], [[pavement engineering]], [[Intelligent Transportation System]] (ITS), and infrastructure management.

===Municipal or urban engineering===
[[File:Old Market Roundabout, Bristol.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|The engineering of this [[roundabout]] in [[Bristol]], England, attempts to make traffic flow free-moving]]
{{Main|Urban engineering}}
[[File:LagoMenorChapultepec3.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Lake [[Chapultepec]]]]
''Municipal engineering'' is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, [[sidewalk]]s, [[municipal water supply|water supply networks]], sewers, [[street light]]ing, [[municipal solid waste]] management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), [[urban park|public parks]] and [[cycling infrastructure]]. In the case of underground [[public utility|utility]] networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It can also include the optimization of waste collection and [[public transport bus service|bus service]] networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by the same municipal authority.  Municipal engineers may also design the site civil works for large buildings, industrial plants or campuses (i.e. access roads, parking lots, potable water supply, treatment or pretreatment of waste water, site drainage, etc.)

===Water resources engineering===
{{See also|Hydraulic engineering|Hydrology}}
[[File:Hoover dam from air.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hoover Dam]] ]]
''Water resources engineering'' is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a [[natural resource]]). As a discipline, it therefore combines elements of hydrology, environmental science, [[meteorology]], [[water conservation|conservation]], and [[resource management]]. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground ([[aquifer]]s) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. However, the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers.

''Hydraulic engineering'' concerns the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of [[Pipeline transport|pipelines]], [[water supply network]], drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, [[Channel (geography)|channels]], [[culvert]]s, [[levee]]s, [[storm sewer]]s), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of [[fluid pressure]], [[fluid statics]], [[fluid dynamics]], and hydraulics, among others.[[File:FalkirkWheelSide 2004 SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The [[Falkirk Wheel]] in Scotland]]

===Civil engineering systems===
Civil engineering systems is a discipline that promotes using [[systems thinking]] to manage complexity and change in civil engineering within its broader public context. It posits that the proper development of civil engineering [[infrastructure]] requires a [[Holism|holistic]], coherent understanding of the relationships between all of the crucial factors that contribute to successful projects while at the same time emphasizing the importance of attention to technical detail. Its purpose is to help integrate the entire civil engineering [[Project management|project life cycle]] from conception, through planning, designing, making, operating to decommissioning.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Introduction+to+Civil+Engineering+Systems%3A+A+Systems+Perspective+to+the+Development+of+Civil+Engineering+Facilities-p-9780470530634 |first=Samuel |last=Labi |title=Introduction to Civil Engineering Systems: A Systems Perspective to the Development of Civil Engineering Facilities |date=2014 |publisher=John Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-53063-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Blockley |first2=Patrick |last2=Godfrey |title=Doing it Differently: Systems for Rethinking Infrastructure |year=2017 |edition=2nd |publisher=ICE Publications |location=London |isbn=978-0-7277-6082-1}}</ref>