Editing Conducting (section)

==Technique==
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Conducting is a means of communicating artistic directions to performers during a performance. Although there are many formal rules on how to conduct correctly, others are subjective, and a wide variety of different conducting styles exist depending upon the training and sophistication of the conductor. The primary responsibilities of the conductor are to unify performers, set the tempo, execute clear preparations and beats, listen critically and shape the sound of the ensemble, and control the interpretation and pacing of the music. Communication is non-verbal during a performance; however, in rehearsal frequent interruptions allow directions as to how the music should be played. During rehearsals the conductor may stop the playing of a piece to request changes in the phrasing or request a change in the [[timbre]] of a certain section. In amateur orchestras, the rehearsals are often stopped to draw the musicians' attentions to performance errors or transposition mistakes.

Conducting requires an understanding of the elements of musical expression ([[tempo]], [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]], [[Articulation (music)|articulation]]) and the ability to communicate them effectively to an ensemble. The ability to communicate nuances of [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]] and expression through gestures is also beneficial. Conducting gestures are preferably prepared beforehand by the conductor while studying the [[sheet music|score]] but may sometimes be spontaneous. A distinction is sometimes made between orchestral conducting and choral conducting. Typically, orchestral conductors use a [[baton (conducting)|baton]] more often than choral conductors. The grip of the baton varies from conductor to conductor.

===Beat and tempo===
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At the beginning of a piece of music, the conductor raises their hands (or hand if they only use a single hand) to indicate that the piece is about to begin. This is a signal for the orchestra members to ready their instruments to be played or for the choristers to be ready and watching. The conductor then looks at the different sections of the orchestra (winds, strings, etc.) or choir to ensure that all the orchestra members are ready to play and choir members are ready. In some choral works, the conductor may signal to a pianist or organist to play a note or chord so that the choir members can determine their starting notes. Then the conductor gives one or more preparatory beats to commence the music. The preparatory beat before the orchestra or choir begins is the [[Beat (music)#Downbeat and upbeat|upbeat]]. The [[Beat (music)|beat]] of the music is typically indicated with the conductor's right hand, with or without a baton. The hand traces a shape in the air in every [[bar (music)|bar]] (measure) depending on the [[time signature]], indicating each beat with a change from downward to upward motion.<ref>{{Cite news|title=The Maestro's Mojo – Breaking Conductors' Down by Gesture and Body Part|first=Daniel J.|last=Wakin|date=6 April 2012|access-date=26 April 2012|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/08/arts/music/breaking-conductors-down-by-gesture-and-body-part.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Farberman|first=Harold|author-link=Harold Farberman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5W-z-wtm9fgC&pg=PA42|title=The Art of Conducting Technique: A New Perspective|date=1999-11-27|publisher=Alfred Music|isbn=978-1-4574-6032-6}}</ref>

The [[Beat (music)#Downbeat|downbeat]] indicates the first beat of the bar, and the upbeat indicates the beat before the first note of the piece and the last beat of the bar. The instant at which the beat occurs is called the ''[[Wikt:ictus|ictus]]'' (plural: ''{{lang|la|ictūs}}'' or ''ictuses'') and is usually indicated by a sudden (though not necessarily large) click of the wrist or change in baton direction. In some instances, "ictus" is also used to refer to a horizontal plane in which all the ictuses are physically located, such as the top of a [[music stand]] where a baton is tapped at each ictus. The gesture leading up to the ictus is called the "preparation", and the continuous flow of steady beats is called the "{{lang|de|takt}}" (the German word for bar, measure and beat).

If the tempo is slow or slowing, or if the time signature is [[Metre (music)#Compound metre|compound]], a conductor will sometimes indicate "subdivisions" of the beats. The conductor can do this by adding a smaller movement in the same direction as the movement for the beat that it belongs to.<!---I can't find the words to make this more clear right now, but I don't think this is clear or understandable to the layman yet---not just quadruple metre--->

Changes to the tempo are indicated by changing the speed of the beat. To carry out and to control a [[rallentando]] (slowing down the pace of the music), a conductor may introduce beat subdivisions. While some conductors use both hands to indicate the beat, with the left hand mirroring the right, formal education discourages such an approach. The second hand can be used for [[Cue note|cueing]] the entrances of individual players or sections and to aid indications of dynamics, phrasing, expression, and other elements.

During an instrumental solo section (or, in an opera orchestra during a vocalist's unaccompanied solo), some conductors stop counting out all the subdivisions and simply tap the baton down once per bar, to aid performers who are counting bars of rests.

There is a difference between the "textbook" definition of where the ictus of a downbeat occurs and the actual [[Historically informed performance|performance practice]] in professional orchestras. With an abrupt, loud [[Dynamics (music)#Sudden changes and accented notes|sforzando]] chord, a professional orchestra will often play slightly ''after'' the striking of the ictus point of the baton stroke.

===Dynamics===
[[dynamics (music)|Dynamics]] are indicated in various ways. The dynamic may be communicated by the size of the conducting movements, larger shapes representing louder sounds. Changes in dynamic may be signalled with the second hand to indicate the beat: an upward motion (usually palm-up) indicates a [[crescendo]]; a downward motion (usually palm-down) indicates a [[Dynamics (music)|diminuendo]]. Changing the size of conducting movements frequently results in changes in the character of the music depending upon the circumstances. Dynamics can be fine-tuned using various gestures: showing one's palm to the performers or leaning away from them may demonstrate a decrease in volume. To adjust the overall balance of the various instruments or voices, these signals can be combined or directed toward a particular section or performer.

===Cueing===
The indication of entries, when a performer or section should begin playing (perhaps after a long period of rests), is called "cueing". A cue must forecast with certainty the exact moment of the coming ictus, so that all the players or singers affected by the cue can begin playing simultaneously. Cueing is most important for cases where a performer or section has not been playing for a lengthy time. Cueing is also helpful in the case of a [[pedal point]] with string players, when a section has been playing the pedal point for a lengthy period; a cue is important to indicate when they should change to a new note. Cueing is achieved by "engaging" the players before their entry (by looking at them) and executing a clear preparation gesture, often directed toward the specific players. An inhalation, which may or may not be an audible "sniff" from the conductor, is a common element in the cueing technique of some conductors. Mere eye contact or a look in the general direction of the players may be sufficient in many instances, as when more than one section of the ensemble enters at the same time. Larger musical events may warrant the use of a larger or more emphatic cue designed to encourage emotion and energy.

===Other musical elements===
[[File:US Navy 030228-N-5576W-002 Jazz great visits Navy.jpg|thumb|[[Gerald Wilson]] leads a jazz [[big band]]]]
Articulation may be indicated by the character of the ictus, ranging from short and sharp for [[staccato]], to long and fluid for [[legato]]. Many conductors change the tension of the hands: strained muscles and rigid movements may correspond to [[marcato]], while relaxed hands and soft movements may correspond to legato or [[espressivo]]. Phrasing may be indicated by wide overhead arcs or by a smooth hand motion either forwards or side-to-side. A held note is often indicated by a hand held flat with palm up. The end of a note, called a "cutoff" or "release", may be indicated by a circular motion, the closing of the palm, or the pinching of finger and thumb. A release is usually preceded by a preparation and concluded with a complete stillness.

Conductors<!-- would a reference improve this? Strauss said (light-heartedly) "never look at the brass, it only encourages them", and Karajan sometimes conducted with his eyes closed --> aim to maintain eye contact with the ensemble as much as possible, encouraging eye contact in return and increasing the dialogue between players/singers and conductor. Facial expressions may also be important to demonstrate the character of the music or to encourage the players. In some cases, such as where there has been little rehearsal time to prepare a piece, a conductor may discreetly indicate how the bars of music will be beat immediately before the start of the movement by holding up their fingers in front of their chest (so only the performers can see). For example, in a {{music|time|4|4}} piece that the conductor will beat "in two" (two ictus points or beats per bar, as if it were {{music|time|2|2}}), the conductor would hold up two fingers in front of their chest.

In most cases, there is a short pause between [[Movement (music)|movements]] of a symphony, concerto or dance suite. This brief pause gives orchestra or choir members time to turn the pages of their part and ready themselves for the start of the next movement. String players may apply rosin or wipe sweat off their hands with a handkerchief. Reed players may take this time to change to a new reed. In some cases, woodwind or brass players will use the pause to switch to a different instrument (e.g., from trumpet to cornet or from clarinet to E{{music|b}} clarinet). If the conductor wishes to immediately begin one movement after another for musical reasons, this is called [[attacca]]. The conductor will instruct the orchestra members and choristers to write the term in their parts, so that they will be ready to go immediately to the next movement.