Editing Criticisms of globalization (section)

== Environmental impacts ==

=== Case study of Thailand’s Pak Mun River ===
In the late 1970s and 1980s, [[hydropower]] dam projects were conducted in order to recreate Thailand's economy into an export-oriented economy. The projects were funded by loans from the World Bank and was part of globalization efforts. Local villagers whom the project would directly affect were not notified, and the World Bank disregarded their concerns. As a result of the building of the dams, villages that heavily depended on the river lost their livelihood and their means of economic gains (i.e., fishing). The projects contaminated the river, which made the river unfit for villagers to drink, bathe, and do laundry without experiencing negative health conditions such as rashes. Furthermore, the projects resulted in the extermination from the region of 40 edible plant species, 45 mushroom species, and 10 bamboo species, all of which the income of the local markets were dependent on, some of which were important for medical usage. The decline in fish population exterminated fishermen's ways of life, as 169 different fish species were affected and 56 species became totally extinct from the local ecosystem. The globalization efforts in Thailand resulted in environmental impacts that affected the social and economic welfare of indigenous populations.<ref name=":12"/>

=== Decreased Biodiversity ===
The [[Biodiversity loss|decrease in biodiversity]] worldwide is an effect of human activity; human impact on ecosystems can be measured by biological diversity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lovejoy |first=Thomas E. |title=Biodiversity and Globalization |url=https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/articles/biodiversity-and-globalization/ |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=OpenMind |language=en-US}}</ref> Harmful effects from globalization are visible from reduced genetic diversity in agriculture from the loss of crop varieties and livestock breeds, loss of biological species, increase of "exotic species" which live outside their natural geographic range, pollution in Earth's natural elements such as air, water, soil, rapid climate change, exhaustion of resources, and social or spiritual disruption.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last=Ehrenfeld |first=D. |date=2003 |title=Globalisation: Effects on Biodiversity, Environment and Society |journal=Conservation and Society |s2cid=153283696 |language=en}}</ref>

According to David Ehrenfeld, agricultural effects have been documented for all food plants from vegetables, grains, and tree tops. Since 1970, over a thousand independent seed companies have been purchased by pharmaceutical, petrochemical, and other transnational corporations.<ref name=":32" /> As transnationals drop all but the profitable seed varieties there is a significant loss of germ plasm.<ref name=":32" /> The Garden Seed Inventory has listed all commercially available, non-hybrid vegetable varieties in the United States and Canada, and shows that beet roots, cabbage, and broccoli will diminish as a result of globalization faster than per capita income increases.<ref name=":32" />

Loss of domestic livestock including the ever-diminishing Haiti Creole Pigs also demonstrates the pressures of globalization. They were nearly killed off due to a disease control effort to "integrate Haiti into the hemispheric economy."<ref name=":32" /> There were efforts to try replacing the pigs with those from Iowa from the United States, but the costly project was a failure since the pigs needs could not be met, leading to Haiti suffering a US$600 million loss.<ref name=":32" />

=== Animal Livelihood Threats ===
[[Holocene extinction#Extinction rate|Extinction rates]] in the 20th and 21st century have far exceeded the historical norm evolutionary history. In the second half of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st, global trade and expansion was growing rapidly; however, this has been accompanied by a loss of species comparable to the great extinctions of early geological times.<ref name=":32" /> The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) warns that corporations have prioritized high-output breeds over gene pools that could ensure future food security; about 20 percent of domestic animals are near-extinction, with a breed lost each month.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=2006-12-15 |title=Globalization threatens farm animal gene pool and future food security, UN warns |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2006/12/203402-globalization-threatens-farm-animal-gene-pool-and-future-food-security-un-warns |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=UN News |language=en}}</ref> Of the 7,600 FAO breeds logged in the farm animal genetics resources, 190 have gone extinct in the past 15 years with another 1,500 species at risk of extinction.<ref name=":4" /> Globalization of livestock markets is one of the largest factor affecting animal livelihood.<ref name=":4" />

The factors resulting in habitat destruction can be narrowed down to: exploitations of populations and natural areas for production or trade, increased housing, agriculture, overfishing, road building, mining, and dam construction.<ref name=":32" /> There are also subtle effects of globalization on wild species, expansions of ecotourism-based industries, changes in land-use practice, and competition for resources has increased contact between wildlife and humans.<ref name=":32" /> It has also introduced human-pathogens to wild species such as ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' in mongooses of Botswana.<ref name=":32" /> The resulting mortality in mongooses has been near-extinction threatening.

=== Increased Emissions ===
Globalization is criticized for its role in increasing carbon dioxide emissions. The increased volume of international trade increases energy consumption as seen in a 2001 study revealing a relationship between economic globalization and trade openness leads to energy consumption and {{CO2}} emissions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kalaycı |first1=Cemalettin |last2=Hayaloğlu |first2=Pınar |date=2019-01-01 |title=The Impact of Economic Globalization on {{CO2}} Emissions: The Case of NAFTA Countries |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330074673 |journal=International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=356–360 |doi=10.32479/ijeep.7233|s2cid=230493875 |doi-access=free }}</ref> International trade relies on various means of transportation including trains, trucks, planes, boats, and ships, each emitting a large quantity of emissions. The development of the transportation sector has greatly contributed to the rise of greenhouse gas; the transportation sector in the United States alone emits 1.9 billion tons of {{CO2}} annually.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Transportation Replaces Power in U.S. as Top Source of {{CO2}} Emissions |url=https://e360.yale.edu/digest/transportation-replaces-power-in-u-s-as-top-source-of-co2-emissions |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref> The farther a good travels, the more fuel is burned, releasing {{CO2}}. These emissions contribute to climate change, ocean acidification, and decreased biodiversity.

Moreover, the good being traded is created using electricity and intermediate goods, which are oftentimes products from international trading. In 2018, countries under the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (China, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand, and ten countries of ASEAN) accounted for 39.1% of global {{CO2}} emissions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tian |first1=Kailan |last2=Zhang |first2=Yu |last3=Li |first3=Yuze |last4=Ming |first4=Xi |last5=Jiang |first5=Shangrong |last6=Duan |first6=Hongbo |last7=Yang |first7=Cuihong |last8=Wang |first8=Shouyang |date=2022-01-20 |title=Regional trade agreement burdens global carbon emissions mitigation |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=408 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28004-5 |pmid=35058436 |pmc=8776788 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..408T |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> Through globalization, trade partnerships have been created to facilitate easy international trade for intermediate goods. This ease allows for more goods to be traded internationally for a cheaper export price, encouraging foreign countries to continue transporting goods, and thus increasing {{CO2}} emissions.

=== Invasive Species ===
Globalization intensifies the spread of invasive species through the increase of trade transportation. Today, the development of trading has open trade routes and markets across the globe. The increased methods of transportation allows living organisms to latch on to the shipping containers and travel to a new location where it can grow [[Invasive species|invasive]] without the checks and balances present in its natural environment.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-15 |title=Effects of Globalization on the Environment |url=https://online.hbs.edu/blog/post/globalization-effects-on-environment |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=Business Insights Blog |language=en}}</ref> Rising volumes of air and ship transport are identified as the main source of marine invasions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Meyerson |first1=Laura A. |last2=Mooney |first2=Harold A. |date=May 2007 |title=Invasive alien species in an era of globalization |url=https://doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5%5B199:IASIAE%5D2.0.CO;2 |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=199–208 |doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[199:iasiae]2.0.co;2 |s2cid=17288811 |issn=1540-9295|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Invasive species contribute to economic harm by altering the ecosystem, causing native biodiversity loss, and preventing native plant growth. Scientists say that invasive species creates lasting effects on the environment. A 2006 study found that the invader garlic mustard virtually eliminated all mycorrhizal fungi colonization, which dramatically damaged the ability for native canopy species to regenerate.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Stinson |first1=Kristina A. |last2=Campbell |first2=Stuart A. |last3=Powell |first3=Jeff R. |last4=Wolfe |first4=Benjamin E. |last5=Callaway |first5=Ragan M. |last6=Thelen |first6=Giles C. |last7=Hallett |first7=Steven G. |last8=Prati |first8=Daniel |last9=Klironomos |first9=John N. |date=2006-04-25 |title=Invasive Plant Suppresses the Growth of Native Tree Seedlings by Disrupting Belowground Mutualisms |journal=PLOS Biology |language=en |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=e140 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0040140 |issn=1545-7885 |pmc=1440938 |pmid=16623597 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The invader's antifungal effects reduced the seeding growth of mycorrhizal fungi-dependent plants, and the effects of the garlic mustard were still recorded 2 years after its removal.<ref name=":02" />

=== Decreased Renewable Resources ===
Globalization promotes the transportation of materials from one country to another, allowing more finite resources to be used up. The need for coal in the world is seen through the trade and transportation of the material across the globe. Coal is most desired due to its cheap extraction price, local availability, and necessity in basic items such as steel, concrete, and electricity.<ref name=":22">{{Cite news |date=2012-12-29 |title=Why is world using more coal? The China trade. |work=Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/Energy-Voices/2012/1229/Why-is-world-using-more-coal-The-China-trade. |access-date=2022-03-01 |issn=0882-7729}}</ref> In fact, 23% of all electricity in the United States is generated by coal, demonstrating reliance on the resource.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is coal used for? {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-coal-used |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=www.usgs.gov}}</ref>

China joined the world trade organization in December 2001 with an average of 2.5 billion tons of coal being supplied each year, and by 2011, their coal usage nearly doubled to 4 billion metric tons.<ref name=":22" /> Further examples of increased coal usage due to international trading include India, the United States, and Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-02-28 |title=Why globalization is energy intensive and wreaks havoc on oil prices |work=Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/Energy-Voices/2013/0228/Why-globalization-is-energy-intensive-and-wreaks-havoc-on-oil-prices#:~:text=Globalization%20increases%20world%20carbon%20dioxide,use,%20carbon%20dioxide%20emissions%20increase. |access-date=2022-03-01 |issn=0882-7729}}</ref> However, coal is not an infinite source of energy. The U.S Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimated in 2020 that the recoverable coal reserves will last 470 years, and the coal produced from mines will last 25 years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How much coal is left - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/coal/how-much-coal-is-left.php#:~:text=Based%20on%20U.S.%20coal%20production,would%20last%20about%2025%20years. |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=www.eia.gov}}</ref> As a result of globalization, more resources are being used up in a faster period of time, which will eventually lead to the demise of resources.