Editing Deception (section)

== In romantic relationships ==
[[File:Edward Burne-Jones - The Beguiling of Merlin.jpg|thumb|''[[The Beguiling of Merlin]]'', by [[Edward Burne-Jones]], 1874]]

Deception has also been observed and studied in [[Romance (love)|romantic]] relationships.<ref name="Guerrero, Andersen, & Afifi, 2007">Guerrero, L., Anderson, P., Afifi, W. (2007). Close Encounters: Communication in Relationships (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.</ref><ref name="Cole">{{cite journal |last=Cole |first=T. |s2cid=44014065 |year=2001 |title=Lying to the one you love: The use of deceptions in romantic relationships |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=107–129 |doi=10.1177/0265407501181005 }}</ref>

There are three primary motivations for deception in relationships.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Reasons for deceiving
!Description
|-
| '''Partner-focused motives'''
| Using deception to avoid hurting the partner, to help the partner to enhance or maintain their [[self-esteem]], to avoid worrying the partner, and to protect the partner's relationship with a third party.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Guthrie |first1=J. |last2=Kunkel |first2=A. |year=2013 |title=Tell me sweet (and not-so-sweet) little lies: Deception in romantic relationships |journal=Communication Studies |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=141–157 |doi=10.1080/10510974.2012.755637 |s2cid=53677161 }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Boon |first1=S. D. |last2=McLeod |first2=B. A. |year=2001 |title=Deception in Romantic Relationships: Subjective Estimates of Success at Deceiving and Attitudes toward Deception |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=463–476 |doi=10.1177/0265407501184002 |s2cid=144821127 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lemay |first1=E. P. |last2=Bechis |first2=M. A. |last3=Martin |first3=J. |last4=Neal |first4=A. M. |last5=Coyne |first5=C. |year=2013 |title=Concealing negative evaluations of a romantic partner's physical attractiveness |journal=Personal Relationships |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=669–689 |doi=10.1111/pere.12007 }}</ref> Partner-focused motivated deception can sometimes be viewed as socially polite and relationally beneficial, such as telling white lies to avoid hurting your partner. Although other, less common, partner-focused motives such as using to deception to evoke jealous reactions from their partner may have damaging effects on a relationship.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sheets |first1=V. L. |last2=Fredendall |first2=L. L. |last3=Claypool |first3=H. M. |year=1997 |title=Jealousy evocation, partner reassurance, and relationship stability: An exploration of the potential benefits of jealousy |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=387–402 |doi=10.1016/S1090-5138(97)00088-3 |bibcode=1997EHumB..18..387S }}</ref>
|-
| '''Self-focused motives'''
| Using deception to enhance or protect one's own [[self-image]], maintain or establish their autonomy, avoid constrictions, unwanted activities, or impositions, shield themselves from [[anger]], [[embarrassment]], or [[criticism]], or resolve an argument.<ref name="Cole" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Another common self-focused motive for deception, is a continuation of deception in order to avoid being caught in a previous deception.<ref name=":1" /> Self-focused deception is generally perceived as a more serious transgression than partner-focused deception, because the deceiver is acting for selfish reasons rather than for the good of the partner or relationship.
|-
| '''Relationship-focused motives'''
| Using deception to limit relationship harm by avoiding conflict or relational trauma.<ref name=":1" /> Relationally motivated deception can be beneficial to a relationship, and other times it can be harmful by further complicating matters. Deception may also be used to facilitate the dissolution of an unwanted relationship.<ref name="Cole" />
|}

Deception impacts the perception of a relationship in a variety of ways, for both the deceiver and the deceived. The deceiver typically perceives less understanding and intimacy from the relationship, in that they see their partner as  less empathetic and more distant.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=DePaulo |first1=B. M. |last2=Kashy |first2=D. A. |s2cid=20626244 |year=1998 |title=Everyday lies in close and casual relationships |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=63–79 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.63 |pmid=9457776 }}</ref> The act of deception can also result in feelings of distress for the deceiver, which become worse the longer the deceiver has known the deceived, as well as in longer-term relationships. Once discovered, deception creates feelings of detachment and uneasiness surrounding the relationship for both partners; this can eventually lead to both partners becoming more removed from the relationship or deterioration of the relationship.<ref name="Cole" /> In general, discovery of deception can result in a decrease in relationship satisfaction and commitment level, however, in instances where a person is successfully deceived, relationship satisfaction can actually be positively impacted for the person deceived, since lies are typically used to make the other partner feel more positive about the relationship.

In general, deception tends to occur less often in relationships with higher satisfaction and commitment levels and in relationships where partners have known each other longer, such as long-term relationships and marriage.<ref name="Cole" /> In comparison, deception is more likely to occur in casual relationships and in dating where commitment level and length of acquaintanceship is often much lower.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":14">{{cite journal |last1=Rowatt |first1=W. C. |last2=Cunninghan |first2=M. R. |last3=Druen |first3=P. B. |year=1998 |title=Deception to get a date |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=24 |issue=11 |pages=1228–1242 |doi=10.1177/01461672982411009 |s2cid=144546956 }}</ref>

=== Deception and infidelity ===
{{Main|Infidelity}}
Unique to exclusive romantic relationships is the use of deception in the form of infidelity. When it comes to the occurrence of infidelity, there are many individual difference factors that can impact this behavior. Infidelity is impacted by [[Attachment theory|attachment style]], relationship satisfaction, [[Executive functions|executive function]], [[sociosexual orientation]], personality traits, and [[Infidelity#Gender differences|gender]]. Attachment style impacts the probability of infidelity and research indicates that people with an insecure [[Attachment theory|attachment style]] (anxious or avoidant) are more likely to cheat compared to individuals with a secure attachment style,<ref name=":15">{{cite journal |last1=DeWall |first1=C. N. |last2=Lambert |first2=N. M. |last3=Slotter |first3=E. B. |last4=Pond |first4=R. S. Jr. |last5=Deckman |first5=T. |last6=Finkel |first6=E. J. |last7=Luchies |first7=L. B. |last8=Fincham |first8=F. D. |s2cid=16982198 |year=2011 |title=So Far Away From One's Partner, Yet So Close to Romantic Alternatives: Avoidant Attachment, Interest in Alternatives, and Infidelity |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=101 |issue=6 |pages=1302–1316 |doi=10.1037/a0025497 |pmid=21967006 }}</ref> especially for avoidant men and anxious women.<ref name=":16">{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=E. S. |last2=Baucom |first2=D. H. |year=2004 |title=Adult Attachment and Patterns of Extradyadic Involvement |journal=Family Process |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=467–488 |doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.2004.00035.x  |pmid=15605979 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Insecure attachment styles are characterized by a lack of comfort within a romantic relationship resulting in a desire to be overly independent (avoidant attachment style) or a desire to be overly dependent on their partner in an unhealthy way (anxious attachment style). Those with an insecure attachment style are characterized by not believing that their romantic partner can/will support and comfort them in an effective way, either stemming from a negative belief regarding themselves (anxious attachment style) or a negative belief regarding romantic others (avoidant attachment style). Women are more likely to commit infidelity when they are emotionally unsatisfied with their relationship whereas men are more likely to commit infidelity if they are sexually unsatisfied with their current relationship.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal |last1=Barta |first1=W. D. |last2=Kiene |first2=S. M. |year=2005 |title=Motivations for infidelity in heterosexual dating couples: The roles of gender, personality differences, and sociosexual orientation |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=339–360 |doi=10.1177/0265407505052440 |s2cid=145727447 }}</ref> Women are more likely to commit emotional infidelity than men while men are more likely to commit sexual infidelity than women; however, these are not mutually exclusive categories as both men and women can and do engage in emotional or sexual infidelity.<ref name=":6" />

Executive control is a part of [[executive functions]] that allows for individuals to monitor and control their behavior through thinking about and managing their actions. The level of executive control that an individual possesses is impacted by development and experience and can be improved through training and practice.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=A. |last2=Lee |first2=K. |year=2011 |title=Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=333 |issue=6045 |pages=959–964 |doi=10.1126/science.1204529 |pmid=21852486 |pmc=3159917 |bibcode=2011Sci...333..959D }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingberg |first=T. |year=2010 |title=Training and plasticity of working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=317–324 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 |pmid=20630350 |s2cid=17438995 }}</ref> Those individuals that show a higher level of executive control can more easily influence/control their thoughts and behaviors in relation to potential threats to an ongoing relationship which can result in paying less attention to threats to the current relationship (other potential romantic mates).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pronk |first1=T. M. |last2=Karremans |first2=J. C. |last3=Wigboldus |first3=D. H. J. |year=2011 |title=How can you resist? Executive control helps romantically involved individuals to stay faithful |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=827–837 |doi=10.1037/a0021993 |pmid=21244181 |hdl=2066/99390 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> [[Sociosexual orientation]] is concerned with how freely individuals partake in casual sex outside of a committed relationship and their beliefs regarding how necessary it is to be in love in order to engage in sex with someone.<ref name=":7">{{cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=J. A. |last2=Gangestad |first2=S. W. |year=1991 |title=Individual differences in sociosexuality: Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=60 |issue= 6|pages=870–883 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.60.6.870 |pmid=1865325 }}</ref> Individuals with a less restrictive [[sociosexual orientation]] (more likely to partake in casual sex) are more likely to engage in infidelity.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /> Individuals that have personality traits including (high) neuroticism, (low) agreeableness, and (low) conscientiousness are more likely to commit infidelity.<ref name=":6" /> Men are generally speculated to cheat more than women, but it is unclear if this is a result of socialization processes where it is more acceptable for men to cheat compared to women or due to an actual increase in this behavior for men.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |last1=Conley |first1=T. D. |last2=Moors |first2=A. C. |last3=Matsick |first3=J. L. |last4=Ziegler |first4=A. |last5=Valentine |first5=B. A. |s2cid=109937245 |year=2011 |title=Women, men, and the bedroom: Methodological and conceptual insights that narrow, reframe, and eliminate gender differences in sexuality |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=20 |issue= 5|pages=296–300 |doi=10.1177/0963721411418467 }}</ref> Research conducted by Conley and colleagues (2011) suggests that the reasoning behind these gender differences stems from the negative stigma associated with women who engage in casual sex and inferences about the sexual capability of the potential sexual partner. In their study, men and women were equally likely to accept a sexual proposal from an individual who was speculated to have a high level of sexual prowess. Additionally, women were just as likely as men to accept a casual sexual proposal when they did not anticipate being subjected to the negative stigma of sexually permissible women as slutty.<ref name=":8" />

=== Online dating deceptions ===
{{Main|Online dating}}
{{See also|Catfishing}}
Research on the use of deception in online dating has shown that people are generally truthful about themselves with the exception of physical attributes to appear more attractive.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/close-encounters/201407/can-you-really-trust-the-people-you-meet-online|title=Can You Really Trust the People You Meet Online? &#124; Psychology Today|website=www.psychologytoday.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scienceofrelationships.com/home/2015/5/14/mythbusting-online-dating.html|title=Myth-busting online dating|date=May 14, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/let-their-words-do-the-talking/201111/detecting-deception-in-online-profiles|title=Detecting Deception in Online Profiles &#124; Psychology Today|website=www.psychologytoday.com}}</ref>  According to the Scientific American, "nine out of ten online daters will fib about their height, weight, or age" such that men were more likely to lie about height while women were more likely to lie about weight.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/anthropology-in-practice/catfishing-the-truth-about-deception-online/|title=Catfishing: The truth about deception online|newspaper=Scientific American Blog Network|last1=d'Costa|first1=Krystal}}</ref> In a study conducted by Toma and Hancock, "less attractive people were found to be more likely to have chosen a profile picture in which they were significantly more attractive than they were in everyday life".<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://bigthink.com/dollars-and-sex/big-fat-liars-less-attractive-people-have-more-deceptive-online-dating-profiles|title=Big fat liars: Less attractive people have more deceptive online dating profiles|date=December 9, 2011}}</ref> Both genders used this strategy in online dating profiles, but women more so than men.<ref name=":5" /> Additionally, less attractive people were more likely to have "lied about objective measures of physical attractiveness such as height and weight".<ref name=":5" /> In general, men are more likely to lie on dating profiles the one exception being that women are more likely to lie about weight.<ref name=":4" />