Editing Digraph (orthography) (section)

===Latin script===
{{main|List of Latin-script digraphs}}

====English====
English has both homogeneous digraphs (doubled letters) and heterogeneous digraphs (digraphs consisting of two different letters). Those of the latter type include the following:

* {{angbr|sc}} normally represents {{IPA|/s/}} ([[voiceless alveolar fricative]] - ''scene'') or {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]] - ''conscious'') before {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}}.
* {{angbr|ng}} represents {{IPA|/ŋ/}} ([[velar nasal]]) as in ''thing''.
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} usually corresponds to {{IPA|/tʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar affricate]] - ''church''), to {{IPA|/k/}} ([[voiceless velar plosive]]) when used as an etymological digraph in words of Greek origin (''christ''), less commonly to {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]) in words of French origin (''champagne'').
* {{angbr|ck}} corresponds to {{IPA|/k/}} as in ''check''.
* {{angbr|[[gh (digraph)|gh]]}} represents {{IPA|/ɡ/}} ([[voiced velar plosive]]) at the beginning of words (''ghost''), represents {{IPA|/f/}} ([[voiceless labiodental fricative]] in ''enough'') or is [[silent letter|silent]] at the end of words (''sigh'').
* {{angbr|ph}} represents {{IPA|/f/}} ([[voiceless labiodental fricative]]), as in ''siphon''.
* {{angbr|rh}} represents English {{IPA|/r/}} in words of Greek origin, such as ''rhythm''.
* {{angbr|[[sh (digraph)|sh]]}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]), as in ''sheep''.
* {{angbr|ti}} usually represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} word-medially before a vowel, as in ''education''.
* {{angbr|[[th (digraph)|th]]}} usually corresponds to {{IPA|/θ/}} ([[voiceless interdental fricative]]) in ''thin'' or {{IPA|/ð/}} ([[voiced interdental fricative]]) in ''then''. See also [[Pronunciation of English th|Pronunciation of English {{angbr|th}}]].
* {{angbr|wh}} represents {{IPA|/hw/}} in some conservative dialects; {{IPA|/w/}} in other dialects (''while''); and {{IPA|/h/}} in a few words in which it is followed by {{angbr|o}}, such as ''who'' and ''whole''. See also [[Phonological history of wh|Phonological history of {{angbr|wh}}]].
* {{angbr|zh}} represents {{IPA|/ʒ/}} in words transliterated from Slavic languages{{which|date=January 2019}}, and in American dictionary pronunciation spelling.
* {{angbr|ci}} usually appears as {{IPA|/ʃ/}} before vowels, like in ''facial'' and ''artificial''. Otherwise it is {{IPA|/si/}} as in ''fancier'' and ''icier'' or {{IPA|/sɪ/}} as in ''acid'' and ''rancid''.
* {{angbr|wr}} represents {{IPA|/r/}}. Originally, it stood for a [[labialisation|labialized]] sound, while {{angbr|r}} without {{angbr|w}} was non-labialized, but the distinction has been lost in most dialects, the two sounds merging into a single [[alveolar approximant]], [[allophone|allophonically]] labialized at the start of syllables, as in ''red'' {{IPA|[ɹʷɛd]}}. See also [[rhotic consonant]].
* {{angbr|qu}} usually represents {{IPA|/kw/}}; {{angbr|q}} is conventionally followed by {{angbr|u}} and a vowel letter as in ''quick'', with [[List of English words containing Q not followed by U|some exceptions.]]

Digraphs may also be composed of vowels. Some letters {{angbr|a, e, o}} are preferred for the first position, others for the second {{angbr|i, u}}. The latter have [[allograph]]s {{angbr|y, w}} in [[English orthography]].
{| class="wikitable"
|+ English vocalic digraphs
!style="text-align:center"| second letter →<br /> first letter ↓
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...e}}
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...i}} ¦ {{angbr|...y}}
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...u}} ¦ {{angbr|...w}}
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...a}}
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...o}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|o...}}
| {{angbr|oe¦œ}} > {{angbr|e}}&nbsp;– {{IPA|/i/}} || {{angbr|oi¦oy}} – {{IPA|/ɔɪ/}} || {{angbr|ou¦ow}} – {{IPA|/aʊ¦uː¦oʊ/}} || {{angbr|oa}} – {{IPA|/oʊ¦ɔː/}} || {{angbr|oo}} – {{IPA|/uː¦ʊ(¦ʌ)/}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|a...}}
| {{angbr|ae¦æ}} > {{angbr|e}} – {{IPA|/i/}} || {{angbr|ai¦ay}} – {{IPA|/eɪ¦ɛ/}} || {{angbr|au¦aw}} – {{IPA|/ɔː/}}<br /><small>(in loanwords: {{IPA|/aʊ/}} )</small> || <small>(in loanwords and proper nouns: {{angbr|aa}} – {{IPA|/ə¦ɔː¦ɔl/}} )</small> || <small>(in loanwords from Chinese: {{angbr|ao}} – {{IPA|/aʊ/}} )</small>
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|e...}}
| {{angbr|ee}} – {{IPA|/iː/}} || {{angbr|ei¦ey}} – {{IPA|/aɪ¦eɪ¦(iː)/}} || {{angbr|eu¦ew}} – {{IPA|/juː¦uː/}} || {{angbr|ea}} – {{IPA|/iː¦ɛ¦(eɪ¦ɪə)/}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|u...}}
| {{angbr|ue}} – {{IPA|/uː¦u/}} || {{angbr|ui}} – {{IPA|/ɪ¦uː/}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|i...}}
| {{angbr|ie}} – {{IPA|/iː(¦aɪ)/}}
|}

====Other languages using the Latin alphabet====
In [[Serbo-Croatian]]:
* {{angbr|[[lj (digraph)|lj]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, ([[palatal lateral approximant]])
* {{angbr|[[nj (digraph)|nj]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])
* {{angbr|[[dž]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} ([[voiced postalveolar affricate]])
Note that in the [[Serbian Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic orthography]], those sounds are represented by single letters (љ, њ, џ).

In [[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]]:
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/x/|}} ([[voiceless velar fricative]]), counted as a distinct letter
* {{angbr|[[dz (digraph)|dz]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/d͡z/}} ([[voiced alveolar affricate]]), counted as a distinct letter in Slovak, relatively rare digraph
* {{angbr|[[dž]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} ([[voiced postalveolar affricate]]), counted as a distinct letter in Slovak, relatively rare digraph

In [[Danish and Norwegian alphabet|Danish and Norwegian]]:
* The digraph {{angbr|[[aa (digraph)|aa]]}} represented {{IPA|/ɔ/}} until 1917 in Norway and 1948 in Denmark, but is today spelt {{angbr|[[å]]}}. The digraph is still used in older names, but sorted as if it were the letter with the diacritic mark.

In [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], several sounds can be represented only by a digraph or a combination of letters. They are the most common combinations, but extreme regional differences exists, especially those of the [[Norwegian dialects|eastern dialects]]. A noteworthy difference is the [[Aspirated consonant|aspiration]] of {{vr|rs}} in eastern dialects, where it corresponds to {{vr|skj}} and {{vr|sj}}. Among many young people, especially in the western regions of Norway and in or around the major cities, the difference between {{IPAslink|ç}} and {{IPAslink|ʃ}} has been completely wiped away and are now pronounced the same.

* {{angbr|kj}} represents {{IPA|/ç/}}
* {{angbr|tj}} represents {{IPA|/ç/}}.
* {{angbr|skj}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.
* {{angbr|sj}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.
* {{angbr|sk}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (before i or y). 
* {{angbr|[[ng (character)|ng]]}} represents {{IPA|/ŋ/}} as in '''ng''' in English ''thi'''ng'''''.

{{anchor|Catalan}}In [[Catalan language|Catalan]]:
* {{angbr|ll}} represents {{IPA|/ʎ/}} ([[palatal lateral approximant]])
* {{angbr|ny}} represents {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])
* {{angbr|rr}} represents {{IPA|/r/}} ([[post-alveolar trill]])
* {{angbr|ss}} represents {{IPA|/s/}} ([[voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]])
* {{angbr|qu}} represents {{IPA|/k/}} ([[voiceless velar plosive]])
* {{angbr|gu}} represents {{IPA|/g/}} ([[voiced velar plosive]])
* postvocalic {{angbr|ix}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]) in [[Eastern Catalan|Eastern]] dialects, in [[Western Catalan|Western]] dialects it represents {{IPA|/jʃ/}}.

{{anchor|Dutch}}In [[Dutch language|Dutch]]:

* {{angbr|[[IJ (digraph)|ij]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ɛi/|}} (see [[#In alphabetization|above]] for its possible status as a separate letter).
* {{angbr|[[ng (character)|ng]]}} represents {{IPA|/ŋ/}} ([[velar nasal]])
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} represents {{IPA|/x/}} ([[voiceless velar fricative]])
* {{angbr|sj}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]])
* {{angbr|ie}} represents {{IPA|/i/}} ([[close front unrounded vowel]])
* {{angbr|oe}} represents {{IPA|/u/}} ([[close back rounded vowel]])
* {{angbr|eu}} represents {{IPA|/ø/}} ([[close-mid front rounded vowel]])

In [[French alphabet|French]]:
* {{angbr|ch}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]])
* {{angbr|gn}} represents {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])
* {{angbr|qu}} represents {{IPA|/k/}} ([[voiceless velar stop]]), typically before historic [[front vowel]]s
::{| class="wikitable"
|+ French vocalic digraphs
|
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...i}}
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...u}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|a...}}
| {{angbr|ai}} – {{IPA|/ɛ¦e/}} || {{angbr|au}} – {{IPA|/o/}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|e...}}
| {{angbr|ei}} – {{IPA|/ɛ/}} || {{angbr|eu}} – {{IPA|/œ¦ø/}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|o...}}
| {{angbr|oi}} – {{IPA|/wa/}} || {{angbr|ou}} – {{IPA|/u(¦w)/}}
|}
See also [[French phonology]].

In [[German alphabet|German]]:
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} represents {{IPA|/x/}} ([[voiceless velar fricative]]) or {{IPA|/ç/}} ([[voiceless palatal fricative]])
* {{angbr|ck}} represents {{IPA|/k/}} ([[voiceless velar plosive]])
* {{angbr|ei}} represents {{IPA|/a͡ɪ/}} ([[open front unrounded vowel]]) followed by ([[near-close near-front unrounded vowel]])
* {{angbr|eu}} represents {{IPA|/ɔ͡ʏ/}} ([[open-mid back rounded vowel]]) followed by ([[near-close near-front rounded vowel]])

In [[Hungarian alphabet|Hungarian]]:
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian cs|cs]]}} represents {{IPA|/tʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian zs|zs]]}} represents {{IPA|/ʒ/}} ([[voiced postalveolar fricative]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian gy|gy]]}} represents {{IPA|/ɟ/}} ([[voiced palatal plosive]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian ly|ly]]}} originally represented {{IPA|/ʎ/}} ([[palatal lateral approximant]]), but in the modern language stands for {{IPA|/j/}} ([[palatal approximant]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian ny|ny]]}} represents {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian ty|ty]]}} represents {{IPA|/c/}} ([[voiceless palatal plosive]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian dz|dz]]}} represents {{IPA|/dz/}} ([[voiced postalveolar affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian sz|sz]]}} represents {{IPA|/s/}} ([[voiceless alveolar fricative]]) ({{angbr|s}} is pronounced {{IPA|/ʃ/}})
* The Hungarian alphabet additionally contains also a [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]], {{angbr|[[Hungarian dzs|dzs]]}} {{IPAslink|dʒ}}.

In [[Italian alphabet|Italian]]:
* {{angbr|sc}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]) before -i and -e (but to {{IPA|/sk/}} before other letters)
* {{angbr|ch}} corresponds to {{IPA|/k/}} (only before i, e)
* {{angbr|gh}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ɡ/}} (only before i, e)
* {{angbr|gl}} represents {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, [[palatal lateral approximant]], before -i (with some exceptions)
* {{angbr|gn}} represents {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])

In [[Manx Gaelic]], {{angbr|ch}} represents {{IPA|/χ/}}, but {{angbr|çh}} represents {{IPA|/tʃ/}}.

In [[Polish language|Polish]]:
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/x/}} ([[voiceless velar fricative]])
* {{angbr|[[cz (digraph)|cz]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/tʂ/}} ([[voiceless retroflex affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[dz (digraph)|dz]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/dz/}} ([[voiced alveolar affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[dź (digraph)|dź]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/dʑ/}} ([[voiced alveolo-palatal affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[dż (digraph)|dż]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/dʐ/}} ([[voiced retroflex affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[rz (digraph)|rz]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʐ/}} ([[voiced retroflex fricative]])
* {{angbr|[[sz (digraph)|sz]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ([[voiceless retroflex fricative]])

In [[Portuguese alphabet|Portuguese]]:
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]])
* {{angbr|[[lh (digraph)|lh]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʎ/}} ([[palatal lateral approximant]])
* {{angbr|[[nh (digraph)|nh]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])
*{{vr|qu}} usually represents {{IPA|/k/}} ([[voiceless velar stop]])
*:

In [[Spanish alphabet|Spanish]]:
* [[ll|{{vr|ll}}]] is traditionally pronounced {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, but in dialects with [[yeísmo]] is pronounced {{IPA|/ʝ/}}
* {{angbr|ch}} represents {{IPA|/tʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar affricate]]). Since 2010, neither is considered part of the alphabet. They used to be sorted as separate letters, but a reform in 1994 by the [[Spanish Royal Academy]] has allowed that they be split into their constituent letters for collation. The digraph {{angbr|[[rr (digraph)|rr]]}}, pronounced as a distinct [[alveolar trill]], was never officially considered to be a letter in the Spanish alphabet, and the same is true {{angbr|gu}} and {{angbr|qu}} (for {{IPA|/ɡ/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} respectively before {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}}).

In [[Welsh alphabet|Welsh]]:
* {{angbr|ng}} represents {{IPA|/ŋ/}} ([[velar nasal]]), the same sound as in English (but in some words it represents two separate letters, and is pronounced {{IPA|/ng/}}).
* {{angbr|ch}} represents {{IPA|/χ/}} ([[voiceless uvular fricative]])
* {{angbr|rh}} represents {{IPA|/r̥/}} ([[alveolar trill|voiceless alveolar trill]]), pronounced roughly like the combination ''hr'' (but again in some words it represents two separate letters, and is pronounced {{IPA|/rh/}}).
* {{angbr|th}} represents {{IPA|/θ/}} ([[voiceless interdental fricative]])
* {{angbr|[[dd (digraph)|dd]]}} represents {{IPA|/ð/}} ([[voiced dental fricative]]), like the English {{angbr|th}} in ''then'' (but is pronounced as voiceless in many contexts).
* {{angbr|[[ff (digraph)|ff]]}} represents {{IPA|/f/}} ([[voiceless labiodental fricative]]), like English {{angbr|f}}, since Welsh {{angbr|f}} is pronounced {{IPA|/v/}} like an English {{angbr|v}}.
* {{angbr|ph}} also represents {{IPA|/f/}} (voiceless labiodental fricative) but, in modern orthography, is used only for the aspirate mutation of words starting with {{angbr|p}}.
* {{angbr|[[ll]]}} represents {{IPA|/ɬ/}} ([[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative]])
The digraphs listed above represent distinct phonemes and are treated as separate letters for collation purposes. On the other hand, the digraphs {{angbr|[[mh (digraph)|mh]]}}, {{angbr|[[nh (digraph)|nh]]}}, and the trigraph {{angbr|[[ngh (letter)|ngh]]}}, which stand for [[voice (phonetics)|voiceless consonants]] but occur only at the beginning of words as a result of the [[Welsh morphology|nasal mutation]], are not treated as separate letters, and thus are not included in the alphabet.

[[Daighi tongiong pingim]], a transcription system used for [[Taiwanese Hokkien]], includes [[or (Digraph)|or]] that represents {{IPA|/ə/}} ([[mid central vowel]]) or {{IPA|/o/}} ([[close-mid back rounded vowel]]), as well as other digraphs.

In [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], {{angbr|gb}} is a letter that represents a plosive most accurately pronounced by trying to say {{IPA|/g/}} and {{IPA|/b/}} at the same time.