Editing French protectorate in Morocco (section)

===French protectorate (1912–1956)===
{{See also|French conquest of Morocco}}
[[File:ETH-BIB-Rabat, Résidence générale, Hauptfront-Dia 247-04950.tif|thumb|[[French Protectorate Residence, Rabat]], 1929 postcard]]
[[File:Traité relatif à l'organisation du protectorat français dans l'empire chérifien TRA19120019 001 - France Maroc.pdf|left|thumb|The [[Treaty of Fez|Treaty of Fes]], which officially established the Protectorate on 30 March 1912]]
{{History of Morocco}}
[[File:Morocco 1918.JPG|thumb|left|Bond of the French protectorate Morocco, issued 1 March 1918]]

[[France]] officially established a protectorate over Morocco with the [[Treaty of Fes]],<ref>{{cite journal|title=TRAITÉ conclu entre la France et le Maroc le 30 mars 1912, pour l'Organisation du Protectorat Français dans l'Empire Chérifien|url=http://81.192.52.100/BO/fr/1912/bo_1_fr.pdf|journal=Bulletin officiel de l'Empire chérifien|location=Rabat|language=fr|volume=1|issue=1|pages=1{{endash}}2|access-date=20 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402180245/http://81.192.52.100/BO/fr/1912/bo_1_fr.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> ending what remained of the country's [[de facto]] independence. From a legal point of view, the treaty gave the legislative power to France, alongside the control of military defense, foreign policy and jurisdiction. The Moorish government exercised authority solely in Moroccan or Islamic affairs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Harriett |date=1955 |title=The Development of Nationalism in French Morocco |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/272660 |journal=Phylon |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=427–434 |doi=10.2307/272660 |jstor=272660 |issn=0885-6818|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Abdelhafid of Morocco|Sultan Abdelhafid]] abdicated in favour of his brother [[Yusef of Morocco|Yusef]] after signing the treaty. On 17 April 1912, Moroccan infantrymen mutinied in the French garrison in Fez, in the [[1912 Fez riots|1912 Fes riots]]<ref name="Hirschberg1981">{{cite book|author=H. Z(J. W.) Hirschberg|title=A history of the Jews in North Africa: From the Ottoman conquests to the present time / edited by Eliezer Bashan and Robert Attal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idEUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA319|year=1981|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-06295-5|page=318}}</ref> The Moroccans were unable to take control of the city and were defeated by a French relief force. In late May 1912, Moroccan forces again unsuccessfully attacked the enhanced French garrison at Fez.

In establishing their protectorate over much of Morocco, the French had put behind them the experience of the conquest of [[French Algeria|Algeria]] and of their protectorate over [[French Tunisia|Tunisia]]; they took the latter as the model for their Moroccan policy. There were, however, important differences. First, the protectorate was established only two years before the outbreak of [[World War I]], which brought with it a new attitude toward colonial rule. Rejecting the typical French assimilationist approach to culture and education as a liberal fantasy, Morocco's conservative French rulers attempted to use urban planning and colonial education to prevent cultural mixing and to uphold the traditional society upon which the French depended for collaboration.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Segalla |first=Spencer D. |year=2009 |title=The Moroccan Soul: French Education, Colonial Ethnology, and Muslim Resistance, 1912–1956 |location=Lincoln, Neb. |publisher=Nebraska University Press |isbn=9780803217782 |oclc=244246686}}</ref> Second, Morocco had a [[History of Morocco|thousand-year tradition]] of independence and had never been subjected to [[Expansion of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]], though it had been strongly influenced by the civilization of [[Al Andalus|Muslim Iberia]].

Morocco was also unique among North African countries in possessing a coast on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], in the rights that various nations derived from the Conference of Algeciras, and in the privileges that their diplomatic missions had acquired in [[Tangier]] (including a [[French Consulate General, Tangier|French legation]]). Thus the northern tenth of the country, with both Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, were excluded from the French-controlled area and treated as a [[Spanish Morocco|Spanish protectorate]].

Although being under [[protectorate]], Morocco retained -''de jure''- its personality as a state in international law, according to an [[International Court of Justice]] statement, and thus remained a sovereign state, without discontinuity between pre-colonial and modern entities.<ref>Bengt Brons, "States: The classification of States", in: International Law: Achievements and Prospects, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1991 ({{ISBN|9789231027161}}), p.51 §.31 [https://books.google.com/books?id=jrTsNTzcY7EC&pg=PA51] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101152617/https://books.google.com/books?id=jrTsNTzcY7EC&pg=PA51|date=1 November 2022}}</ref> In fact, the French enjoyed much larger powers.

Under the protectorate, French civil servants allied themselves with the French [[colonists]] and with their supporters in France to prevent any moves in the direction of Moroccan autonomy. As pacification proceeded, the French government promoted [[Economic history of Morocco|economic development]], particularly the exploitation of Morocco’s mineral wealth, the creation of a modern [[Transportation in Morocco|transportation system]], and the development of a modern [[Agriculture in Morocco|agriculture sector]] geared to the [[Economy of France|French market]]. Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco and bought up large amounts of the rich agricultural land. Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco.

====World War I====
[[File:Exposition of Moroccan Art 1917.png|thumb|An advertisement for an art exhibition for the benefit of Moroccan troops wounded serving France in WWI. It features an [[Orientalism|orientalist]] painting by [[Joseph de La Nézière]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/4577/|title=Exhibition of Moroccan Art|date=1917|website=www.wdl.org|access-date=3 January 2020}}</ref>]]

France recruited infantry from Morocco to join its ''[[troupes coloniales]]'', as it did in its other colonies in Africa and around the world. Throughout [[World War I]], a total of 37,300–45,000 Moroccans fought for France, forming a "[[Moroccan Division (France)|Moroccan Brigade]]."<ref name=":2"/><ref name=":1" /> Moroccan colonial troops first served France in the [[First Battle of the Marne]], September 1914,<ref name=":1" /> and participated in every major battle in the war,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lexpress.fr/actualites/1/culture/guerre-de-1914-18-les-soldats-marocains-dans-toutes-les-grandes-batailles_2045775.html|title=Guerre de 1914–18: les soldats marocains "dans toutes les grandes batailles"|date=1 November 2018|website=LExpress.fr|language=fr|access-date=3 January 2020}}</ref> including in [[Third Battle of Artois|Artois]], [[Second Battle of Champagne|Champagne]], and [[Battle of Verdun|Verdun]].<ref name=":2" /> Historians have called these Moroccan soldiers "heroes without glory" as they are not and have not been given the consideration they merited through valor and sacrifice in the war.<ref name=":2"/> Brahim El Kadiri Boutchich identified the participation of Moroccan soldiers in the service of France in WWI as "one of the most important moments in the [[France–Morocco relations|shared history of Morocco and France]]."<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.alaraby.co.uk/politics/2018/11/10/الجنود-المغاربة-في-الحرب-العالمية-الأولى-أبطال-بلا-مجد|title=الجنود المغاربة في الحرب العالمية الأولى: أبطال بلا مجد|last=الأشرف|first=الرباط ــ حسن|website=alaraby|language=ar|access-date=3 January 2020}}</ref>

====Lyautey and the Protectorate (1912–1925)====
[[File:General Lyautey-Pirou-img 3150.jpg|thumb|Marshal Lyautey, first [[List of French residents-general in Morocco|resident general]] of French Morocco. He represented French colonial interests while also upholding the authority of the [[List of rulers of Morocco|sultan]].]]

[[Hubert Lyautey]], the first [[Resident-General]] of the Protectorate, was an idealistic yet pragmatic leader with [[royalism|royalist]] leanings, who made it his mission to develop Morocco in every sector under French influence. Unlike his compatriots, Lyautey didn't believe that France should directly annex Morocco like [[French Algeria]], but rather remodel and re-educate Moroccan society. He promised that, in this process, he would:

{{blockquote|...offend no tradition, change no [[Moroccan culture|custom]], and remind ourselves that in all human society there is a ruling class, born to rule, without which nothing can be done...[we] enlist the ruling class in our service...and the country will be pacified, and at far less cost and with greater certainty than by all the military expeditions we could send there...}}

Lyautey's vision was ideological: A powerful, pro-French, [[Westernization|Westernized]] monarchy that would work with France and look to France for culture and aid. Unlike in Algeria, where the entire nobility and government had been displaced, the Moroccan nobility was included in Lyautey's plans. He worked with them, offering support and building elite [[private school]]s to which they could send their children; one notable attendee of these schools was [[Thami El Glaoui]].<ref name="ReferenceA">"A History of Modern Morocco" p.90-91 Susan Gilson Miller, Cambridge University Press 2013</ref>

Lyautey allowed the Sultan to retain his powers, both nominal and practical: He issued decrees in his own name and [[royal seal|seal]] and was allowed to remain the religious leader of Morocco; he was further allowed an all-Arab court. Lyautey once said this:

{{blockquote|In Morocco, there is only one government, the {{Wikt-lang|en|sharifian}} government, protected by the French.}}

[[Walter Burton Harris]], a British journalist who wrote extensively on Morocco, commented upon French preservation of traditional Moroccan society:<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

{{blockquote|At the Moorish court, scarcely a European is to be seen, and to the [[Moroccans|native]] who arrives at the Capital{{sic}} there is little or no visible change from what he and his ancestors saw in the past.}}

Lyautey served his post until 1925, in the middle of the [[Rif War|failed revolt]] of the [[Republic of the Rif]] against the Franco-Spanish administration and the Sultan.

====Economic exploitation====

=====Agriculture=====
[[File:فلاح_في_حقل_الشعير_في_الشاوية_المغربية.jpg|thumb|A farmer in a field of [[barley]] in the [[Chaouia (Morocco)|Chaouia]], published 15 August 1917 in the magazine ''France-Maroc'']]

Learning from experiences in [[French Algeria|Algeria]], where imprudent land appropriation, as Professor Susan Gilson Miller puts it, "reduced much of the native peasantry to a rootless proletariat,"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Susan Gilson |title=A history of modern Morocco |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780521008990 |page=113}}</ref> Lyautey solicited a select group of 692 "gentlemen-farmers"—instead of what he called the "riff-raff" of southern Europe—capable of serving as "examples" to {{Lang|fr|les indigènes}} and imparting French influence in the rural colonization of Morocco from 1917 to 1925.<ref name=":02" /> The objective was to secure a steady supply of grain for [[Metropolitan France]] and to transform Morocco once again into the "granary of Rome" by planting cereals primarily in the regions of [[Chaouia (Morocco)|Chaouia]], [[Gharb-Chrarda-Béni Hssen|Gharb]], and [[Marrakesh-Tensift-El Haouz|Hawz]]—despite the fact that the region is prone to drought. After a period of minimal profits and a massive locust swarm in 1930, agricultural production shifted toward irrigated, higher-value crops such as citrus fruits and vegetables.<ref name=":02" /> The industrialization of agriculture required capital that many Moroccan farmers did not have, leading to a [[Rural flight|rural exodus]] as many headed to find work [[Urbanization|in the city]].<ref name=":02" />

=====Infrastructure=====
[[File:خريطة الطرق في المغرب 1919.jpg|thumb|Roadmap of Morocco in 1919]]

The Compagnie franco-espagnole du chemin de fer de Tanger à Fez built a standard gauge railroad connecting Fes and Tangier,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6531943d|title=Compagnie franco-espagnole du chemin de fer de Tanger à Fez|date=1914|language=EN}}</ref> while Compagnie des chemins de fer du Maroc (CFM) built [[Standard-gauge railway|standard gauge]] railways connecting Casablanca, Kenitra, and Sidi Kacem, and Casablanca and Marrakech, completed in 1928.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6207539f|title=La Terre marocaine: revue illustrée...|date=1 December 1928|website=Gallica|language=EN|access-date=23 March 2020}}</ref> Compagnie des Chemins de Fer du Maroc Oriental created [[2 ft and 600 mm gauge railways|narrow-gauge]] railroads east of Fes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allain|first=J.-C.|date=1987|title=Les chemins de fer marocains du protectorat français pendant l'entre-deux-guerres|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhmc_0048-8003_1987_num_34_3_1417|journal=Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine|volume=34|issue=3|pages=427–452|doi=10.3406/rhmc.1987.1417}}</ref>

''[[Compagnie de Transports au Maroc|La Compagnie de Transports au Maroc]]'' ([[Compagnie de Transports au Maroc|CTM]]) was founded in 30 November 1919 with the goal of accessing "all of Morocco." Its services ran along a new colonial road system planned with the aim of linking all major towns and cities.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Miller|first=Susan Gilson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vochAwAAQBAJ&q=offend+no+tradition,+change+no+custom,+and+remind+ourselves+that+in+all+human+society+there+is+a+ruling+class,+born+to+rule,+without+which+nothing+can+be+done...%5Bwe%5D+enlist+the+ruling+class+in+our+service...and+the+country+will+be+pacified,+and+at+far+less+cost+and+with+greater+certainty+than+by+all+the+military+expeditions+we+could+send+there&pg=PA90|title=A History of Modern Morocco|date=8 April 2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139619110|pages=112|language=en}}</ref> It continues to offer intercity bus services nationwide.

=====Natural resources=====
[[File:خريطة اقتصادية للمغرب 1928.jpg|thumb|An economic map of Morocco produced by the French protectorate in 1928]]

The {{Lang|fr|[[Office Chérifien des Phosphates]]}} ([[OCP Group|OCP]]) was created in 1920 to mine [[phosphate]]s out of [[Khouribga]], which was connected to the [[Port of Casablanca]] by a direct rail line.<ref name=":6" /> In 1921, 39,000 tons of phosphate were extracted, while almost 2 million tons were extracted in 1930.<ref name=":6" /> The Moroccan laborers working in the mines did not benefit from any social protections, were forbidden from unionizing, and earned a tiny fraction of what Europeans earned.<ref name=":6" />

=====Industry=====
Industry during the early period of the protectorate focused on food processing for local consumption: there were canneries, a sugar refinery (Compagnie Sucriere Marocaine, COSUMA),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cosumar.co.ma/en/the-group/history/|title=HISTORY|website=Cosumar|language=en|access-date=23 March 2020}}</ref> a brewing company (Société des Brasseries du Maroc, SBM),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.boissons-maroc.com/en/history/|title=History – GBM|language=en-US|access-date=23 March 2020}}</ref> and flour mills.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vassal|first=Serge|date=1951|title=Les industries de Casablanca|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/caoum_0373-5834_1951_num_4_13_1718|journal=Les Cahiers d'Outre-Mer|volume=4|issue=13|pages=61–79|doi=10.3406/caoum.1951.1718}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> Manufacturing and heavy industry, however, were not embraced for fears of competing with [[Metropolitan France]].<ref name=":6" />