Editing Gender equality (section)

==Contemporary efforts to fight inequality==
{{see also|Gender inequality}}
In 2010, the [[European Union]] opened the [[European Institute for Gender Equality]] (EIGE) in [[Vilnius]], [[Lithuania]] to promote gender equality and to fight [[sex discrimination]]. In 2015 the EU published the Gender Action Plan 2016–2020.<ref name="GAP2016">{{cite web|title=The European Union's new Gender Action Plan 2016–2020: gender equality and women's empowerment in external relations|url=https://www.odi.org/publications/10021-gender-equality-empowerment-eu-external-relations-gap-2016_2020|website=odi.org| date=26 October 2015 |access-date=2017-11-16|archive-date=2018-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215133747/https://www.odi.org/publications/10021-gender-equality-empowerment-eu-external-relations-gap-2016_2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

Gender equality is part of the national curriculum in Great Britain and many other European countries. By presidential decree, the Republic of Kazakhstan created a Strategy for Gender Equality 2006–2016 to chart the subsequent decade of gender equality efforts.<ref name="sgeinkz">{{cite web|title=Strategy for Gender Equality in Kazakhstan 2006–2016|url=https://www.ndi.org/files/Kazakhstan-Gender-Strategy-2006-2016.pdf|website=NDI.org|access-date=2017-11-16|archive-date=2022-02-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219142019/https://www.ndi.org/sites/default/files/Kazakhstan-Gender-Strategy-2006-2016.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Personal, social, health and economic education]], [[Religious education|religious studies]] and [[language acquisition]] curricula tend to address gender equality issues as a very serious topic for discussion and analysis of its effect in society.

A large and growing body of research has shown how gender inequality undermines health and development. To overcome gender inequality the [[United Nations Population Fund]] states that women's empowerment and gender equality requires strategic interventions at all levels of programming and policy-making. These levels include reproductive health, economic empowerment, educational empowerment and political empowerment.<ref>{{cite web
  |url=https://www.unfpa.org/gender-equality
  |publisher=[[UNFPA]]
  |date=10 May 2018
  |title=Gender equality
  |at=Key issues
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617103408/https://aa.unfpa.org/gender-equality
  |archive-date=17 June 2023
  |url-status=live
}}</ref>

[[UNFPA]] says that "research has also demonstrated how working with men and boys as well as women and girls to promote gender equality contributes to achieving health and development outcomes."<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/resources/engaging-men-and-boys-brief-summary-unfpa-experience-and-lessons-learned|title=Engaging Men and Boys: A Brief Summary of UNFPA Experience and Lessons Learned|date=2013|website=UNFPA: United Nations Population Fund|language=en|access-date=2017-03-28|archive-date=2018-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108064142/http://www.unfpa.org/resources/engaging-men-and-boys-brief-summary-unfpa-experience-and-lessons-learned|url-status=live|page=2}}</ref>

The extent to which national policy frameworks address gender issues improved over the past decade. National policies and budgets in East Africa and Latin America, for example, have increasingly highlighted structural gaps in access to land, inputs, services, finance and digital technology and included efforts to produce gender-responsive outcomes.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |url=https://doi.org/10.4060/cc5060en |title=The status of women in agrifood systems - Overview |publisher=FAO |year=2023 |location=Rome |doi=10.4060/cc5060en |s2cid=258145984 |language=EN}}</ref> However, the extent to which agricultural policies specifically address gender equality and women's empowerment varies.<ref name=":4" />

Even though more than 75 percent of agricultural policies that the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] analysed recognized women's roles and/or challenges in agriculture, only 19 percent had gender equality in agriculture or women's rights as explicit policy objectives. And only 13 percent encouraged rural women's participation in the policy cycle.<ref name=":4" />

In the Philippines, the country's second woman President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo signed on August 14, 2009 into law the Republic Act No. 9710 or the Magna Carta of Women of 2009 to address the long-standing struggle of Filipino women for equal rights and to eliminate all forms of discrimination against them. This comprehensive law compiles human rights laws aimed at eliminating discrimination against women. It declares the State's commitment to recognizing women's roles in nation-building, affirming women's rights as human rights, condemning all forms of discrimination against women in line with the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), and enforcing legal measures to promote equal opportunities for women to participate in and contribute to development. It also reaffirms women's rights to participate in policy formulation, planning, monitoring, and evaluation of all programs, projects, and services.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pcw.gov.ph/faq-republic-act-9710-the-magna-carta-of-women/|title=Republic Act 9710 or the Magna Carta of Women: Frequently Asked Questions|website=pcw.gov.ph|access-date=24 January 2025}}</ref>



===Health and safety===
{{Further|Gender disparities in health}}

====Effect of gender inequality on health====
[[File:2020 Global Response report FGM world map.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Map showing the percentage of women and girls aged 15–49 years (unless otherwise stated) who have undergone FGM/C,  according to the March 2020 Global Response report. Grey countries' data are not covered.]]Social constructs of [[gender]] (that is, cultural ideals of socially acceptable [[masculinity]] and [[femininity]]) often have a negative effect on health. The World Health Organization cites the example of women not being allowed to travel alone outside the home (to go to the hospital), and women being prevented by cultural norms to ask their husbands to use a condom, in cultures which simultaneously encourage male promiscuity, as social norms that harm [[women's health]]. Teenage boys suffering accidents due to social expectations of impressing their peers through [[risk|risk taking]], and men dying at much higher rate from [[lung cancer]] due to [[smoking]], in cultures which link smoking to masculinity, are cited by the WHO as examples of gender norms negatively affecting [[men's health]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gender/genderandhealth/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040707221735/http://www.who.int/gender/genderandhealth/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 7, 2004|title=WHO: World Health Organization|website=Who.int|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref> The World Health Organization has also stated that there is a strong connection between gender socialization and transmission and lack of adequate management of [[HIV/AIDS]].<ref name="ReferenceA" />
[[File:Maternal mortality ratio per 100,000 live births.png|thumb|upright=1.6|[[List of countries by maternal mortality ratio|Maternal mortality ratio]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Maternal mortality ratio |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/maternal-mortality-ratio-who-gho|website=[[Our World in Data]] |access-date=30 March 2024}}</ref>]]
Certain cultural practices, such as [[female genital mutilation]] (FGM), negatively affect women's health.<ref name="who.int">{{cite web | url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation | title=Female genital mutilation | access-date=2019-03-18 | archive-date=2021-01-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129023511/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation | url-status=live }}</ref> Female genital mutilation is the ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the external female genitalia. It is rooted in inequality between the sexes, and constitutes a form of discrimination against women.<ref name="who.int" /> The practice is found in Africa,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unfpa.org/search/content?search_api_fulltext=Female+Genital+Mutilation+Dashboard+%28FGM%29|title=Search Api solr &#124; United Nations Population Fund}}</ref> Asia,  Middle East and Indonesia, and in Europe among immigrant communities from countries in which FGM is common.  [https://www.unfpa.org/news/taking-female-genital-mutilationcutting-out-cultural-mosaic-kenya#:~:text=But%20the%20practice%2C%20condemned%20by,prerequisite%20for%20a%20good%20marriage. UNICEF] estimated in 2016 that 200 million women have undergone the procedure.<ref name="UNICEF2016">{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf |title=Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern |location=New York |publisher=United Nations Children's Fund |date=2016 |access-date=2020-12-26 |archive-date=2017-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210071422/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>[[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Map of countries by fertility rate (2020), according to the [[Population Reference Bureau]]]]According to the World Health Organization, gender equality can improve men's health. The study shows that traditional notions of masculinity have a big impact on men's health. Among European men, [[non-communicable diseases]], such as [[cancer]], [[cardiovascular diseases]], [[Respiratory disease|respiratory illnesses]], and [[diabetes]], account for the vast majority of deaths of men aged 30–59 in Europe which are often linked to unhealthy diets, stress, [[substance abuse]], and other habits, which the report connects to behaviors often stereotypically seen as masculine behaviors like heavy drinking and smoking. Traditional gender [[stereotypes]] that keep men in the role of [[breadwinner]] and [[Discrimination#Sex, sex characteristics, gender, and gender identity|systematic discrimination]] preventing women from equally contributing to their households and participating in the workforce can put additional stress on men, increasing their risk of health issues, and men bolstered by [[cultural norms]] tend to take more risks and engage in [[interpersonal violence]] more often than women, which could result in fatal injuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/2018/09/19/gender-equality-could-help-men-in-europe-live-longer-report|title=Gender equality could help men in Europe live longer: report|date=September 20, 2018|work=[[Euronews]]|access-date=February 6, 2019|archive-date=February 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207015554/https://www.euronews.com/2018/09/19/gender-equality-could-help-men-in-europe-live-longer-report|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/work/1392183/mens-health-is-worse-in-countries-with-less-gender-equality/|title=Countries where men hold the power are really bad for men's health|date=September 17, 2018|work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|access-date=February 6, 2019|archive-date=February 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207072201/https://qz.com/work/1392183/mens-health-is-worse-in-countries-with-less-gender-equality/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/gender-inequality-mens-health/|title=Gender Inequality Is Bad for Men's Health, Report Says|date=September 18, 2018|work=[[Global Citizen Festival|Global Citizen]]|access-date=February 6, 2019|archive-date=February 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207021024/https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/gender-inequality-mens-health/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-determinants/gender/mens-health|title=Men's health and well-being in the WHO European Region|work=[[WHO]]|date=2019-06-06|access-date=2019-02-06|archive-date=2019-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222062158/http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-determinants/gender/mens-health|url-status=live}}</ref>


====Violence against women====
{{Main|Violence against women}}
[[File:MURDER-SCALE-4-2019.jpg|thumb|A map of the world showing murders per 100,000 population committed against women, 2019]]
[[File:FGM road sign, Bakau, Gambia, 2005.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Anti-[[FGM]] road sign, Bakau, Gambia, 2005]]
[[File:Bound feet (X-ray).jpg|thumb|An X-ray of two bound feet. [[Foot binding]] was practiced for centuries in China.]]
[[Violence against women]] (VAW) is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women.{{Refn|Forms of violence against women include [[Sexual violence]] (including [[War Rape]], [[Marital rape]], [[Date rape]] by drugs or alcohol, and [[Child sexual abuse]], the latter often in the context of [[Child marriage]]), [[Domestic violence]], [[Forced marriage]], [[Female genital mutilation]], [[Forced prostitution]], [[Sex trafficking]], [[Honor killing]], [[Dowry killing]], [[Acid attacks]], [[Stoning]], [[Flogging]], [[Forced sterilisation]], [[Forced abortion]], violence related to accusations of witchcraft, mistreatment of widows (e.g. widow inheritance). Fighting against violence against women is considered a key issue for achieving gender equality. The Council of Europe adopted the Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (Istanbul Convention).|group=lower-roman}} This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly ''because'' they are women, or as a result of patriarchal gender constructs.{{Refn|The UN [[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]] defines violence against women as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life" and states that:"violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm|title=Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women|publisher=United Nations General Assembly|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=4 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804222717/http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Violence and mistreatment of women in marriage has come to international attention during the past decades. This includes both violence committed inside marriage ([[domestic violence]]) as well as violence related to marriage customs and traditions (such as [[dowry]], [[bride price]], [[forced marriage]] and [[child marriage]]).

According to some theories, violence against women is often caused by the acceptance of violence by various cultural groups as a means of conflict resolution within intimate relationships. Studies on [[Intimate partner violence]] victimization among ethnic minorities in the United Studies have consistently revealed that immigrants are a high-risk group for intimate violence.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bachman |first=Ronet |date=January 1994 |title=Violence Against Women: A National Crime Victimization Survey Report |url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/digitization/145325ncjrs.pdf |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=August 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810184521/https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/145325NCJRS.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Prevalence and Impact of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Among an Ethnic Minority Population|first1=Sabine|last1=Hellemans|first2=Tom|last2=Loeys|first3=Ann|last3=Buysse|first4=Olivia|last4=De Smet|date=1 November 2015|journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence|volume=30|issue=19|pages=3389–3418|doi=10.1177/0886260514563830|pmid=25519236|hdl=1854/LU-5815751|s2cid=5958973|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/5815751|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801003835/https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/5815751|url-status=live|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

In countries where gang murders, armed kidnappings, civil unrest, and other similar acts are rare, the vast majority of murdered women are killed by partners/ex-partners.{{Refn|As of 2004–2009, former and current partners were responsible for more than 80% of all cases of [[femicide|murders of women]] in [[Cyprus]], [[France]], and [[Portugal]].<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/H-Research_Notes/SAS-Research-Note-14.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403000428/http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/H-Research_Notes/SAS-Research-Note-14.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 3, 2012|title=Femicide: A Global Problem|date=February 2012|website=Small Arms Survey|publisher=Research Notes: Armed Violence}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} By contrast, in countries with a high level of organized criminal activity and gang violence, murders of women are more likely to occur in a public sphere, often in a general climate of indifference and impunity.<ref name=":1" /> In addition, many countries do not have adequate comprehensive data collection on such murders, aggravating the problem.<ref name=":1" />

In some parts of the world, various forms of violence against women are tolerated and accepted as parts of everyday life.{{Refn|According to UNFPA:<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/gender/practices.htm|title=Gender equality|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=20 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020025509/http://www.unfpa.org/gender/practices.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
:"In some developing countries, practices that subjugate and harm women – such as wife-beating, killings in the name of honour, female genital mutilation/cutting and dowry deaths – are condoned as being part of the natural order of things."|group=lower-roman}}

In most countries, it is only in more recent decades that domestic violence against women has received significant legal attention. The [[Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence|Istanbul Convention]] acknowledges the long tradition of European countries of ignoring this form of violence.{{Refn|In its [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm explanatory report] at para 219, it states:
:"There are many examples from past practice in Council of Europe member states that show that exceptions to the prosecution of such cases were made, either in law or in practice, if victim and perpetrator were, for example, married to each other or had been in a relationship. The most prominent example is rape within marriage, which for a long time had not been recognised as rape because of the relationship between victim and perpetrator."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm|title=Explanatory Report to the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210)|website=Conventions.coe.int|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=20 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720234156/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In ''Opuz v Turkey'', the [[European Court of Human Rights]] recognized violence against women as a form discrimination against women: "[T]he Court considers that the violence suffered by the applicant and her mother may be regarded as ''gender-based violence which is a form of discrimination against women''."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-92945#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-92945%22]}|title=Case of Opuz v. Turkey|date=September 2009|website=European Court of Human Rights|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref> This is also the position of the Istanbul Convention which reads:"Article 3 – Definitions, For the purpose of this Convention: a "violence against women" is understood as a violation of human rights and ''a form of discrimination against women'' [...]".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm|author=Council of Europe|title=Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210)|website=Conventions.coe.int|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=23 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923210455/http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

In some cultures, acts of violence against women are seen as crimes against the male 'owners' of the woman, such as husband, father or male relatives, rather the woman herself. This leads to practices where men inflict violence upon women in order to get revenge on male members of the women's family.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2012/12/unw-legislation-supplement-en%20pdf.pdf|title=Supplement to the Handbook for Legislation on Violence Against Women: Harmful Practices Against Women|date=2012|website=UN Women|access-date=2015-06-10|archive-date=2015-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610131259/http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2012/12/unw-legislation-supplement-en%20pdf.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Such practices include [[Types of rape#Payback rape|payback rape]], a form of rape specific to certain cultures, particularly the [[Pacific Islands]], which consists of the rape of a female, usually by a group of several males, as revenge for acts committed by members of her family, such as her father or brothers, with the rape being meant to humiliate the father or brothers, as punishment for their prior behavior towards the perpetrators.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://waaiabulletin.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/png_activist_toolkit_16_days_2009_-_iwd_2010.pdf|title=Many Voices One Message: Stop Violence Against Women in PNG|date=2009–2010|website=Activist Toolkit, Amnesty International|access-date=2017-03-28|archive-date=2017-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153358/https://waaiabulletin.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/png_activist_toolkit_16_days_2009_-_iwd_2010.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Richard A. Posner]] writes that "Traditionally, rape was the offense of depriving a father or husband of a valuable asset — his wife's chastity or his daughter's virginity".<ref>''Sex and Reason'', by Richard A. Posner, page 94.</ref> Historically, rape was seen in many cultures (and is still seen today in some societies) as a crime against the [[Family honor|honor of the family]], rather than against the self-determination of the woman. As a result, victims of rape may face violence, in extreme cases even honor killings, at the hands of their family members.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/honourcrimes/crimesofhonour_1.shtml|title=Ethics: Honour crimes|website=Bbc.co.uk|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=21 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053506/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/honourcrimes/crimesofhonour_1.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13760895|title=Libya rape victims 'face honour killings'|website=BBC News|access-date=14 June 2015|date=2011-06-14|last1=Harter|first1=Pascale|archive-date=2013-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921101600/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13760895|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Catharine MacKinnon]] argues that in male dominated societies, sexual intercourse is imposed on women in a coercive and unequal way, creating a continuum of victimization, where women have few positive sexual experiences.{{Refn|She writes "To know what is wrong with rape, know what is right about sex. If this, in turn, is difficult, the difficulty is as instructive as the difficulty men have in telling the difference when women see one. Perhaps the wrong of rape has proved so difficult to define because the unquestionable starting point has been that rape is defined as distinct from intercourse, while for women it is difficult to distinguish the two under conditions of male dominance."<ref group=upper-roman>''Toward a Feminist Theory of the State'', by Catharine A. MacKinnon, pp 174</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Socialization within rigid gender constructs often creates an environment where sexual violence is common.{{Refn|According to the World Health Organization: "Sexual violence is also more likely to occur where beliefs in male sexual entitlement are strong, where gender roles are more rigid, and in countries experiencing high rates of other types of violence."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/summary_en.pdf|title=World report on violence and health: summary|website=World Health Organization|date=2002|access-date=2020-10-04|archive-date=2019-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190305201126/https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/summary_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} One of the challenges of dealing with sexual violence is that in many societies women are perceived as being readily available for sex, and men are seen as entitled to their bodies, until and unless women object.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/32000/ior530012011en.pdf|title=Rape and Sexual Violence: Human rights law and standards in the international criminal court|date=1 March 2011|website=Amnesty International|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=13 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613020021/https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/32000/ior530012011en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/64000/eur270022007en.pdf|title=Hungary: Cries Unheard: The Failure To Protect Women From Rape And Sexual Violence In The Home|publisher=Amnesty International|date=2007|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=13 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613012347/https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/64000/eur270022007en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Refn|Rebecca Cook wrote in ''Submission of Interights to the European Court of Human Rights in the case of [[M.C. v. Bulgaria]], 12 April 2003'': "The equality approach starts by examining not whether the woman said 'no', but whether she said 'yes'. Women do not walk around in a state of constant consent to sexual activity unless and until they say 'no', or offer resistance to anyone who targets them for sexual activity. The right to physical and sexual autonomy means that they have to affirmatively consent to sexual activity."|group=lower-roman}}

=====Types of VAW=====

Violence against women may be classified according to different approaches.
* '''WHO's life cycle typology''':

The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) has developed a typology of violence against women based on their cultural life cycles.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''Phase''' || '''Type of violence'''
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Pre-birth || Sex-selective abortion; effects of battering during pregnancy on birth outcomes
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Infancy || Female infanticide; physical, sexual and psychological abuse
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Girlhood || Child marriage; female genital mutilation; physical, sexual and psychological abuse; incest; child prostitution and pornography
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Adolescence and adulthood || Dating and courtship violence (e.g. acid throwing and date rape); economically coerced sex (e.g. school girls having sex with "sugar daddies" in return for school fees); incest; sexual abuse in the workplace; rape; sexual harassment; forced prostitution and pornography; trafficking in women; partner violence; marital rape; dowry abuse and murders; partner homicide; psychological abuse; abuse of women with disabilities; forced pregnancy
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Elderly || Forced "suicide" or homicide of widows for economic reasons; sexual, physical and psychological abuse<ref name="WHO_VAW">{{cite book | last = WHO | author-link = World Health Organization | title = Violence against women: Definition and scope of the problem, 1, 1-3 | url = https://www.who.int/gender/violence/v4.pdf | publisher = [[World Health Organization]] | date = July 1997 | access-date = 30 November 2013 | archive-date = 30 November 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181130173014/http://www.who.int/gender/violence/v4.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>
|}

Significant progress towards the protection of women from violence has been made on international level as a product of collective effort of lobbying by many women's rights movements; international organizations to civil society groups. As a result, worldwide governments and international as well as civil society organizations actively work to combat violence against women through a variety of programs. Among the major achievements of the women's rights movements against violence on girls and women, the landmark accomplishments are the "[[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]]" that implies "political will towards addressing VAW " and the legal binding agreement, "the Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women ([[CEDAW]])".<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Rosche | first1 = Daniela | last2 = Dawe | first2 = Alexandra | title = Oxfam Briefing Note: Ending violence against women the case for a comprehensive international action plan | page = 2 | publisher = [[Oxfam|Oxfam GB]] | location = Oxford | year = 2013 | url = http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bn-ending-violence-against-women-action-plan-220213-en.pdf |isbn=978-1-78077-263-9 | access-date = 2 December 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170925212852/https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bn-ending-violence-against-women-action-plan-220213-en.pdf | archive-date = 25 September 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref> In addition, the UN General Assembly resolution also designated 25 November as [[International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women]].<ref>{{cite book | last = UN | author-link = United Nations | title = International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women | url = https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/news/vawd.html | via = un.org | publisher = [[United Nations]] | date = 17 December 1999 | access-date = 3 April 2016 | archive-date = 13 February 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210213161934/https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/news/vawd.html | url-status = live }}</ref>
* '''''The Lancet'''s over time typology''':

A typology similar to the WHO's from an article on violence against women published in the academic journal ''[[The Lancet]]'' shows the different types of violence perpetrated against women according to what time period in a women's life the violence takes place.<ref name="VAM: Global scope & magnitude">{{cite journal | last1 = Watts | first1 = Charlotte | last2 = Zimmerman | first2 = Cathy | title = Violence against women: global scope and magnitude | journal = [[The Lancet]] | volume = 359 | issue = 9313 | pages = 1232–1237 | publisher = [[Elsevier]] | pmid = 11955557 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08221-1 | date = 6 April 2002 | s2cid = 38436965 }}</ref> However, it also classifies the types of violence according to the perpetrator. One important point to note is that more of the types of violence inflicted on women are perpetrated by someone the woman knows, either a family member or intimate partner, rather than a stranger.
* '''Council of Europe's nine forms of violence''':

The Gender Equality Commission of the [[Council of Europe]] identifies nine forms of violence against women based on subject and context rather than life cycle or time period:<ref name="Hagemann-White">{{cite web |url=https://rm.coe.int/16805915e9 |title=Analytical study of the results of the 4th round of monitoring the implementation of Recommendation Rec(2002)5 on the protection of women against violence in Council of Europe member states |first=Carol |last=Hagemann-White |pages=7, 8, 11 |publisher=Council of Europe Equality Division |date=February 2014 |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803211102/https://rm.coe.int/16805915e9 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://edoc.coe.int/en/fundamental-freedoms/5949-state-of-democracy-human-rights-and-the-rule-of-law-in-europe.html |title=State of democracy, human rights and the rule of law in Europe (2014) |first=Thorbjørn |last=Jagland |author-link=Thorbjørn Jagland |work=Report by the Secretary General of the Council of Europe |page=48 |publisher=Council of Europe |date=May 2014 |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=24 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424094422/https://edoc.coe.int/en/fundamental-freedoms/5949-state-of-democracy-human-rights-and-the-rule-of-law-in-europe.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 'Violence within the family or domestic violence'
* 'Rape and sexual violence'
* 'Sexual harassment'
* 'Violence in institutional environments'
* 'Female genital mutilation'
* 'Forced marriages'
* 'Violence in conflict and post-conflict situations'
* 'Killings in the name of honour'
* 'Failure to respect freedom of choice with regard to reproduction'

=====Violence against trans women=====
{{further|Transgender women}}

Killings of [[transgender]] individuals, especially transgender women, continue to rise yearly. 2020 saw a record 350 transgender individuals murdered, with means including suffocation and burning alive.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiewareham/2020/11/11/350-transgender-people-have-been-murdered-in-2020-transgender-day-of-remembrance-list/?sh=e5a18d965a61 |title=Murdered, Suffocated and Burned Alive - 350 Transgender People Killed in 2020 |last=Wareham |first=Jamie |date=November 11, 2020 |website=Forbes |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=February 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219142029/https://gum.criteo.com/syncframe?origin=publishertag&topUrl=www.forbes.com |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2009, United States data showed that transgender people are likely to experience a broad range of violence in the entirety of their lifetime. Violence against trans women in Puerto Rico started to make headlines after being treated as "An Invisible Problem" decades before. It was reported at the 58th Convention of the Puerto Rican Association that many transgender women face institutional, emotional, and structural obstacles. Most trans women do not have access to health care for [[STD prevention]] and are not educated on violence prevention, mental health, and social services that could benefit them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Madera|first1=Sheilla L.|last2=Padilla|first2=Mark|last3=Varas-Díaz|first3=Nelson|last4=Neilands|first4=Torsten|last5=Guzzi|first5=Ana C. Vasques|last6=Florenciani|first6=Ericka J.|last7=Ramos-Pibernus|first7=Alíxida|date=2017-01-28|title=Experiences of Violence Among Transgender Women in Puerto Rico: An Underestimated Problem|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|volume=64|issue=2|pages=209–217|doi=10.1080/00918369.2016.1174026|issn=0091-8369|pmc=5546874|pmid=27054395}}</ref>

[[Trans woman|Trans women]] in the United States have been the subject of anti-trans stigma, which includes criminalization, dehumanization, and violence against those who identify as transgender. From a societal standpoint, a trans person can be victim to the stigma due to lack of family support, issues with health care and social services, [[police brutality]], discrimination in the work place, cultural marginalisation, poverty, sexual assault, assault, bullying, and mental trauma. The [[Human Rights Campaign]] tracked over 128 cases{{Clarify|reason=so it was 129 cases? or...?|date=April 2019}} that ended in fatality against transgender people in the US from 2013 to 2018, of which eighty percent included a trans woman of color. In the US, high rates of [[Intimate partner violence|Intimate Partner violence]] impact trans women differently because they are facing discrimination from police and health providers, and alienation from family. In 2018, it was reported that 77 percent of transgender people who were linked to sex work and 72 percent of transgender people who were homeless, were victims of intimate partner violence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrc.org/resources/a-national-epidemic-fatal-anti-transgender-violence-in-america-in-2018/|title=A National Epidemic: Fatal Anti-Transgender Violence in America|last=Campaign|first=Human Rights|website=Human Rights Campaign|language=en|access-date=2019-02-25|archive-date=2019-03-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301202408/https://www.hrc.org/resources/a-national-epidemic-fatal-anti-transgender-violence-in-america-in-2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Reproductive and sexual health and rights====
{{Main|Reproductive health|Reproductive rights}}
{{Further|Forced sterilization|Forced pregnancy|Forced abortion}}
[[File:Maternal mortality rate worldwide.jpg|thumb|Global maternal mortality rate per 100,000 live births (2010)<ref name=CIA>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html |title=Country Comparison: Maternal Mortality Rate |website=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209080903/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html |archive-date=December 9, 2020}}</ref>]]
[[File:Maternal health (4798750001).jpg|thumb|In 2010, [[Sierra Leone]] launched free healthcare for pregnant and breastfeeding women]]

The importance of women having the right and possibility to have control over their body, reproduction decisions, and sexuality, and the need for gender equality in order to achieve these goals are recognized as crucial by the [[Fourth World Conference on Women]] in Beijing and the UN [[International Conference on Population and Development]] Program of Action. The World Health Organization (WHO) has stated that promotion of gender equality is crucial in the fight against [[HIV/AIDS]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gender/hiv_aids/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030727141344/http://www.who.int/gender/hiv_aids/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 27, 2003|title=WHO: World Health Organization|website=Who.int|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref>

[[Maternal mortality]] is a major problem in many parts of the world. [[UNFPA]] states that countries have an obligation to protect women's [[right to health]], but many countries do not do that.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/reducing_mm.pdf|title=Reducing Maternal Mortality: The contribution of the right to the highest attainable standard of health|last1=Hunt|first1=Paul|last2=Mezquita de Bueno|first2=Julia|publisher=University of Essex|year=2010|location=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=2017-03-28|archive-date=2017-11-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107032623/http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/reducing_mm.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Maternal mortality is considered today not just an issue of development but also an issue of [[human rights]].{{Refn|[[UNFPA]] says that, "since 1990, the world has seen a 45 per cent decline in maternal mortality – an enormous achievement. But in spite of these gains, almost 800 women still die every day from causes related to pregnancy or childbirth. This is about one woman every two minutes."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/maternal-health|title=Maternal health: UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129122355/https://www.unfpa.org/maternal-health|url-status=live}}</ref> According to UNFPA:<ref name=":3" />

:"Preventable maternal mortality occurs where there is a failure to give effect to the rights of women to health, equality, and non-discrimination. Preventable maternal mortality also often represents a violation of a woman's right to life."|group=lower-roman}}

The right to reproductive and sexual autonomy is denied to women in many parts of the world, through practices such as [[forced sterilization]], forced/coerced sexual partnering (e.g. [[forced marriage]], [[child marriage]]), criminalization of consensual sexual acts (such as [[sex outside marriage]]), lack of criminalization of [[marital rape]], violence in regard to the choice of partner ([[honor killings]] as punishment for 'inappropriate' relations).{{Refn|Amnesty International's Secretary General has stated that: "It is unbelievable that in the twenty-first century some countries are condoning child marriage and marital rape while others are outlawing abortion, sex outside marriage and same-sex sexual activity – even punishable by death."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/sexual-and-reproductive-rights-under-threat-worldwide-2014-03-06|title=Sexual and reproductive rights under threat worldwide|publisher=Amnesty International|date=March 6, 2014|access-date=2014-07-15|archive-date=2014-12-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206225115/http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/sexual-and-reproductive-rights-under-threat-worldwide-2014-03-06|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} The sexual health of women is often poor in societies where a woman's right to control her sexuality is not recognized.{{Refn|High Commissioner for Human Rights [[Navi Pillay]] has called for full respect and recognition of women's autonomy and sexual and reproductive health rights, stating:

:"Violations of women's human rights are often linked to their sexuality and reproductive role. Women are frequently treated as property, they are sold into marriage, into trafficking, into sexual slavery. Violence against women frequently takes the form of sexual violence. Victims of such violence are often accused of promiscuity and held responsible for their fate, while infertile women are rejected by husbands, families, and communities. In many countries, married women may not refuse to have sexual relations with their husbands, and often have no say in whether they use contraception."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.chr.up.ac.za/images/files/news/news_2012/Navi%20Pillay%20Lecture%2015%20May%202012.pdf|title=Valuing Women as Autonomous Beings: Women's sexual and reproductive rights|last=Pillay|first=Navi|date=May 15, 2012|website=University of Pretoria, Centre for Human Rights|access-date=July 15, 2014|archive-date=March 13, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313210726/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/images/files/news/news_2012/Navi%20Pillay%20Lecture%2015%20May%202012.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
These practices infringe on the right of achieving reproductive and sexual health.|group=lower-roman}}

[[Adolescent]] girls have the highest risk of sexual coercion, sexual ill health, and negative reproductive outcomes. The risks they face are higher than those of boys and men; this increased risk is partly due to gender inequity (different socialization of boys and girls, gender based violence, child marriage) and partly due to biological factors.{{Refn|Females' risk of acquiring sexually transmitted infections during unprotected sexual relations is two to four times that of males'.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/resources/giving-special-attention-girls-and-adolescents|title=Giving Special Attention to Girls and Adolescents|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=7 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707005611/http://www.unfpa.org/resources/giving-special-attention-girls-and-adolescents|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

=====Family planning and abortion=====
[[File:Familiy Planning Ethiopia (bad effects).jpg|thumb|Placard showing negative effects of lack of family planning and having too many [[child]]ren and [[infant]]s ([[Ethiopia]])]]

[[Family planning]] is the practice of freely deciding the number of children one has and the intervals between their births, particularly by means of contraception or voluntary sterilization. Abortion is the induced termination of pregnancy. [[Abortion law]]s vary significantly by country. The availability of contraception, sterilization and abortion is dependent on laws, as well as social, cultural and religious norms. Some countries have liberal laws regarding these issues, but in practice it is very difficult to access such services due to doctors, pharmacists and other social and medical workers being [[conscientious objector]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/11/italian-gynaecologists-refuse-abortions-miscarriages|title=Seven in 10 Italian gynaecologists refuse to carry out abortions|first1=Stephanie Kirchgaessner Pamela|last1=Duncan|first2=Alberto|last2=Nardelli|first3=Delphine|last3=Robineau|date=11 March 2016|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420115157/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/11/italian-gynaecologists-refuse-abortions-miscarriages|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/doctors-refusal-to-perform-abortions-divides-croatia-02-13-2017 |title=Doctors' Refusal to Perform Abortions Divides Croatia |website=Balkan Insight |access-date=14 November 2017 |date=2017-02-14 |archive-date=2018-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116141407/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/doctors-refusal-to-perform-abortions-divides-croatia-02-13-2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Family planning is particularly important from a women's rights perspective, as having very many pregnancies, especially in areas where malnutrition is present, can seriously endanger women's health. UNFA writes that "Family planning is central to gender equality and women's empowerment, and it is a key factor in reducing poverty".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/family-planning|title=Family planning: UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=30 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330132526/https://www.unfpa.org/family-planning|url-status=live}}</ref>

Family planning is often opposed by governments who have strong [[natalist]] policies. During the 20th century, such examples have included the aggressive natalist policies from [[communist Romania]] and [[communist Albania]]. State mandated [[forced marriage]] was also practiced by some authoritarian governments as a way to meet population targets: the [[Khmer Rouge]] regime in [[Cambodia]] systematically forced people into marriages, in order to increase the population and continue the revolution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.d.dccam.org/Abouts/Intern/Natalae_Forced_marriage.pdf|first=Natalae|last=Anderson|title=Documentation Center of Cambodia, ''Memorandum: Charging Forced Marriage as a Crime Against Humanity,''|date=September 22, 2010|website=D.dccam.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153617/http://www.d.dccam.org/Abouts/Intern/Natalae_Forced_marriage.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> By contrast, the [[one child policy|one-child policy]] of China (1979–2015) included punishments for families with more than one child and [[forced abortion]]s. The fine is so-called "social maintenance fee" and it is the punishment for the families who have more than one child. According to the policy, the families who violate the law may bring the burden to the whole sociey. Therefore, the social maintenance fee will be used for the operation of the basic government.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Quanbao |last2=Liu |first2=Yixiao |date=2016-10-01 |title=Low fertility and concurrent birth control policy in China |journal=The History of the Family |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=551–577 |doi=10.1080/1081602X.2016.1213179 |s2cid=157905310 |issn=1081-602X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Some governments have sought to prevent certain ethnic or social groups from reproduction. Such policies were carried out against ethnic minorities in Europe and North America in the 20th century, and more recently in Latin America against the Indigenous population in the 1990s; in [[Peru]], President [[Alberto Fujimori]] (in office from 1990 to 2000) has been accused of [[genocide]] and [[crimes against humanity]] as a result of a sterilization program put in place by his administration targeting indigenous people (mainly the [[Quechua people|Quechuas]] and the [[Aymara people|Aymaras]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2148793.stm|title=Mass sterilisation scandal shocks Peru|date=24 July 2002|website=News.bbc.co.uk|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521121426/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2148793.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Investigation and prosecution of crimes against women and girls====
Human rights organizations have expressed concern about the legal [[impunity]] of perpetrators of crimes against women, with such crimes being often ignored by authorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/ImpunityForVAWGlobalConcern.aspx|title=Impunity for violence against women is a global concern|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=10 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113251/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/ImpunityForVAWGlobalConcern.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> This is especially the case with murders of women in [[Latin America]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/CDDandCMDPDH_forthesession_Mexico_CEDAW52.pdf|title=Femicide and Impunity in Mexico: A context of structural and generalized violence|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424140151/https://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/CDDandCMDPDH_forthesession_Mexico_CEDAW52.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/4/femicide-in-latin-america|title=Femicide in Latin America|newspaper=Un Women – Headquarters|date=4 April 2013 |access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=7 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207042250/http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/4/femicide-in-latin-america|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cgrs.uchastings.edu/our-work/central-america-femicides-and-gender-based-violence|title=Central America: Femicides and Gender-Based Violence|website=Cgrs.uchastings.edu|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714224933/http://cgrs.uchastings.edu/our-work/central-america-femicides-and-gender-based-violence|url-status=live}}</ref> In particular, there is impunity in regard to [[domestic violence]].{{Refn|High Commissioner for Human Rights, [[Navi Pillay]], has stated on domestic violence against women: "The reality for most victims, including victims of honor killings, is that state institutions fail them and that most perpetrators of domestic violence can rely on a culture of impunity for the acts they commit – acts which would often be considered as crimes, and be punished as such, if they were committed against strangers."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=9869&LangID=E|title=High Commissioner speaks out against domestic violence and "honour killing" on occasion of International Women's Day"|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714182718/http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=9869&LangID=E|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

Women are often, in law or in practice, unable to access legal institutions. UN Women has said that: "Too often, justice institutions, including the police and the courts, deny women justice".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://progress.unwomen.org/|title=Progress of the World's Women 2015–2016|website=My Favorite News|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=23 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423135248/http://progress.unwomen.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> Often, women are denied legal recourse because the state institutions themselves are structured and operate in ways incompatible with genuine justice for women who experience violence.{{Refn|According to Amnesty International, "Women who are victims of gender-related violence often have little recourse because many state agencies are themselves guilty of gender bias and discriminatory practices."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/women-s-rights/violence-against-women/violence-against-women-information|title=Violence Against Women Information|website=Amnesty International USA|access-date=2015-12-19|archive-date=2016-04-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404225053/http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/women-s-rights/violence-against-women/violence-against-women-information|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

====Harmful traditional practices====
[[File:Say no to dowry.jpg|thumb|Anti-dowry poster in [[Bangalore, India|Bangalore]], India]]
[[File:FGM prevalence UNICEF 2016.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=map|FGM in Africa, Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen, as of 2015 ([[Special:Filepath/AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg|map of Africa]]).<ref name=UNICEF2016/>]]
"Harmful traditional practices" refer to forms of violence which are committed in certain communities often enough to become cultural practice, and accepted for that reason. Young women are the main victims of such acts, although men can also be affected.<ref name="NHS Traditional">{{cite web|url=http://www.gbv.scot.nhs.uk/gbv/harmful-traditional-practices|title=National Gender Based Violence & Health Programme|website=Gbv.scot.nhs.uk|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=8 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208001701/http://www.gbv.scot.nhs.uk/gbv/harmful-traditional-practices|url-status=live}}</ref> They occur in an environment where women and girls have unequal rights and opportunities.<ref name="ohchr.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet23en.pdf|title=Fact Sheet No.23, Harmful Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=10 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910231123/https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet23en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
These practices include, according to the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]]:<ref name="ohchr.org" />

{{Blockquote|[[female genital mutilation]] (FGM); forced feeding of women; early marriage; the various taboos or practices which prevent women from controlling their own fertility; nutritional taboos and traditional birth practices; son preference and its implications for the status of the girl child; female infanticide; early pregnancy; and dowry price}}

Son preference refers to a cultural preference for sons over daughters, and manifests itself through practices such as sex selective abortion; female infanticide; or abandonment, neglect or abuse of girl-children.<ref name="ohchr.org" />

Abuses regarding nutrition are taboos in regard to certain foods, which result in poor nutrition of women, and may endanger their health, especially if pregnant.<ref name="ohchr.org" />

The [[caste system in India]] which leads to [[untouchability]] (the practice of ostracizing a group by segregating them from the mainstream society) often interacts with gender discrimination, leading to a double discrimination faced by [[Dalit]] women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/docs/ngos/chrgj-hrw.pdf|title=CASTE DISCRIMINATION AGAINST DALITS OR SO-CALLED UNTOUCHABLES IN INDIA|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=28 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728154019/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/docs/ngos/chrgj-hrw.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In a 2014 survey, 27% of Indians admitted to practicing untouchability.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/one-in-four-indians-admit-to-practising-untouchability-biggest-caste-survey/|title=Biggest caste survey: One in four Indians admit to practising untouchability|date=29 November 2014|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=18 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171218114401/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/one-in-four-indians-admit-to-practising-untouchability-biggest-caste-survey/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Traditional customs regarding birth sometimes endanger the mothers. Births in parts of Africa are often attended by traditional birth attendants (TBAs), who sometimes perform rituals that are dangerous to the health of the mother. In many societies, a difficult labour is believed to be a divine punishment for marital infidelity, and such women face abuse and are pressured to "confess" to the infidelity.<ref name="ohchr.org" />

Tribal traditions can be harmful to males; for instance, the [[Satere-Mawe]] tribe use [[bullet ant]]s as an [[initiation rite]]. Men must wear gloves with hundreds of bullet ants woven in for ten minutes: the ants' stings cause severe pain and paralysis. This experience must be completed twenty times for boys to be considered "warriors".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/travel/Holidays/Wildlife/article77936.ece|title=Bitten by the Amazon|last=Backshall|first=Steve|date=6 January 2008|newspaper=The Sunday Times|location=London|access-date=13 July 2013|archive-date=22 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222144437/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/travel/Holidays/Wildlife/article77936.ece|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Other harmful traditional practices include [[marriage by abduction]], ritualized [[sexual slavery]] ([[Devadasi]], [[Trokosi]]), [[breast ironing]] and [[widow inheritance]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-13-0-000-11-Web/Anth-13-2-000-11-Abst-Pdf/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N-Tt.pdf|title=Violation of Women's Rights by Harmful Traditional Practices|first1=Newman|last1=Wadesango|first2=Symphorosa|last2=Rembe|first3=Owence|last3=Chabaya|website=Krepublishers.com|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=24 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024141418/http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-13-0-000-11-Web/Anth-13-2-000-11-Abst-Pdf/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N-Tt.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/elim-disc-viol-girlchild/ExpertPapers/EP.4%20%20%20Raswork.pdf|title=The impact of harmful traditional practices on the girl child|website=Un.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=3 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703173157/https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/elim-disc-viol-girlchild/ExpertPapers/EP.4%20%20%20Raswork.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/HarmfulPractices/GenderEmpowermentandDevelopment.pdf|title=Breast Ironing... A Harmful Practice That Has Been Silenced For Too Long|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=26 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226024853/http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/HarmfulPractices/GenderEmpowermentandDevelopment.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kit.nl/net/KIT_Publicaties_output/ShowFile2.aspx?e=1415|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819085837/http://www.kit.nl/net/KIT_Publicaties_output/ShowFile2.aspx?e=1415|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 August 2014|title=Exchange on HIV/AIDS, Sexuality and Gender|date=2008|access-date=14 November 2017}}</ref>

=====Female genital mutilation=====
[[File:Campaign road sign against female genital mutilation (cropped) 2.jpg|thumb|left|Road sign near [[Kapchorwa]], [[Uganda]], 2004]]
[[UNFPA]] and [[UNICEF]] regard the practice of [[female genital mutilation]] as "a manifestation of deeply entrenched gender inequality. It persists for many reasons. In some societies, for example, it is considered a rite of passage. In others, it is seen as a prerequisite for marriage. In some communities – whether Christian, Jewish, Muslim – the practice may even be attributed to religious beliefs."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/female-genital-mutilation|title=Female genital mutilation|website=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=April 25, 2021|archive-date=May 27, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527085515/https://www.unfpa.org/female-genital-mutilation|url-status=live}}</ref>

An estimated 125&nbsp;million women and girls living today have undergone FGM in the 29 countries where data exist. Of these, about half live in Egypt and Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/publications/unfpa-unicef-joint-programme-female-genital-mutilationcutting-accelerating-change|title=UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=4 April 2017|archive-date=9 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409002244/http://www.unfpa.org/publications/unfpa-unicef-joint-programme-female-genital-mutilationcutting-accelerating-change|url-status=live}}</ref> It is most commonly carried out on girls between infancy and 15 years old.<ref name="NHS Traditional" />

=====Forced marriage and child marriage=====
{{Main|Forced marriage|Child marriage}}
[[File:Girl Summit - 22nd July in London (14498368279).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|Poster against child and forced marriage]]
Early marriage, child marriage or [[forced marriage]] is prevalent in parts of Asia and Africa. The majority of victims seeking advice are female and aged between 18 and 23.<ref name="NHS Traditional" /> Such marriages can have harmful effects on a girl's education and development, and may expose girls to social isolation or abuse.<ref name="ohchr.org" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58008.html|title=Child marriage|date=22 October 2014|website=UNICEF|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=7 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907061839/https://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58008.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/topic/womens-rights/child-marriage|title=Child Marriage|website=Human Rights Watch|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712041122/https://www.hrw.org/topic/womens-rights/child-marriage|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 2013 UN Resolution on Child, Early and Forced Marriage calls for an end to the practice, and states that "Recognizing that child, early and forced marriage is a harmful practice that violates abuses, or impairs human rights and is linked to and perpetuates other harmful practices and human rights violations, that these violations have a disproportionately negative impact on women and girls [...]".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/pmnch/media/events/2014/child_marriage.pdf?ua=1|format=PDF|title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly : 69/XX. Child, Early and Forced Marriage|website=Who.int|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153359/http://www.who.int/pmnch/media/events/2014/child_marriage.pdf?ua=1|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite a near-universal commitment by governments to end child marriage, "one in three girls in developing countries (excluding China) will probably be married before they are 18."<ref name="unfpa.org2">{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/end-child-marriage|title=End Child Marriage|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=14 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714002638/http://www.unfpa.org/end-child-marriage|url-status=live}}</ref> [[UNFPA]] states that, "over 67 million women 20–24 year old in 2010 had been married as girls. Half were in Asia, one-fifth in Africa. In the next decade 14.2 million girls under 18 will be married every year; this translates into 39,000 girls married each day. This will rise to an average of 15.1 million girls a year, starting in 2021 until 2030, if present trends continue."<ref name="unfpa.org2" />

=====Bride price=====
{{Main|Bride price}}
[[Bride price]] (also called bridewealth or bride token) is money, property, or other form of wealth paid by a groom or his family to the parents of the bride. This custom often leads to women having reduced ability to control their fertility. For instance, in northern Ghana, the payment of bride price signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control face threats, violence and reprisals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.popcouncil.org/uploads/pdfs/councilarticles/sfp/SFP301Bawah.pdf|title=Women's Fears and Men's Anxieties : The Impact of Family Planning on Gender Relations in Northern Ghana|website=Popcouncil.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420115200/https://www.popcouncil.org/research/womens-fears-and-mens-anxieties-the-impact-of-family-planning-on-gender-rel|url-status=live}}</ref> The custom of bride price has been criticized as contributing to the mistreatment of women in marriage, and preventing them from leaving abusive marriages. [[UN Women]] recommended its abolition, and stated that: "Legislation should ... State that divorce shall not be contingent upon the return of bride price but such provisions shall not be interpreted to limit women's right to divorce; State that a perpetrator of [[domestic violence]], including marital rape, cannot use the fact that he paid bride price as a defence to a domestic violence charge."<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

The custom of bride price can also curtail the free movement of women: if a wife wants to leave her husband, he may demand back the bride price that he had paid to the woman's family; and the woman's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back, making it difficult for women to move out of violent husbands' homes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Equality Now (2007) Protecting the girl child: Using the law to end child, early and forced marriage and related human rights violations|url=http://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf|website=Equalitynow.org|date=7 January 2014 |access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=28 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528120452/http://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Lelieveld, M.|date=2011|title=Child protection in the Somali region of Ethiopia. A report for the BRIDGES project Piloting the delivery of quality education services in the developing regional states of Ethiopia|access-date=17 April 2015|url=http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/FINALChild_Protection_in_the_Somali_Region_30511.pdf|website=Savethechildren.org.uk|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095119/http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/FINALChild_Protection_in_the_Somali_Region_30511.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Stange, Mary Zeiss |author2=Carol K. Oyster |author3=Jane E. Sloan|title=Encyclopedia of Women in Today's World, Volume 1|year=2011|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-4129-7685-5|page=496}}</ref>

===Economy and public policy===
====Economic empowerment of women====
{{Main|Women in the workforce|Female economic activity}}[[File:EU 27 Gender Pay Gap 2014.png|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Bar graph showing the gender pay gap in European countries|[[Gender pay gap]] in average gross hourly earnings in the [[European Union|EU]] member states, according to [[Eurostat]] 2014<ref name="EC stats">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-pay-gap/situation-europe/index_en.htm|title=The situation in the EU|publisher=[[European Commission]]|access-date=July 12, 2011|archive-date=December 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219234951/http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-pay-gap/situation-europe/index_en.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2018}}]]
Promoting gender equality is seen as an encouragement to greater [[Prosperity|economic prosperity]].<ref name="Smart" />{{Refn|For example, nations of the [[Arab world]] that deny equality of opportunity to women were warned in a 2008 [[United Nations]]-sponsored report that this disempowerment is a critical factor crippling these nations' return to the first rank of global leaders in commerce, [[Education|learning]], and [[culture]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20879#.WNpwsRLyub8|title=Gender equality in Arab world critical for progress and prosperity, UN report warns|date=2006-12-07|website=UN News Service Section|language=en|access-date=2017-03-28|archive-date=2017-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329142215/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20879#.WNpwsRLyub8|url-status=live}}</ref> That is, Western bodies are less likely to conduct commerce with nations in the Middle East that retain culturally accepted attitudes towards the status and function of women in their society in an effort to [[cultural globalization|force them to change their beliefs]] in the face of relatively underdeveloped economies.|group=lower-roman}} [[Female economic activity]] is a common measure of gender equality in an economy.{{Refn|[[UN Women]] states that: "Investing in women's economic empowerment sets a direct path towards gender equality, poverty eradication and inclusive economic growth."<ref name="unwomen.org">{{cite news|url=http://www.unwomen.org/ru/what-we-do/economic-empowerment|title=What we do: Economic empowerment: UN Women – Headquarters|newspaper=Оон-Женщины|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=25 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825221217/http://www.unwomen.org/ru/what-we-do/economic-empowerment|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}
[[File:Why diversity is important in local government.webm|thumb|A government video: Why substantive equality is important in local government]]

Gender discrimination often results in women obtaining low-wage jobs and being disproportionately affected by poverty, discrimination and exploitation.<ref name="unwomen.org" />{{Refn|The [[UN Population Fund]] says that, "Six out of 10 of the world's poorest people are women. Economic disparities persist partly because much of the unpaid work within families and communities falls on the shoulders of women, and because women continue to face discrimination in the economic sphere."<ref name="unfpa.org1" />|group=lower-roman}} A growing body of research documents what works to economically empower women, from providing access to formal financial services to training on agricultural and business management practices, though more research is needed across a variety of contexts to confirm the effectiveness of these interventions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womeneconroadmap.org/|title=Roadmap for Promoting Women's Economic Empowerment|website=Womeneconroadmap.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=7 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007115204/http://www.womeneconroadmap.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Gender biases also exist in product and service provision.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Harvard Law Review Association|title=Civil rights – gender discrimination: California prohibits gender-based pricing|date=May 1996}}</ref> The term "Women's Tax", also known as "[[Pink tax|Pink Tax]]", refers to gendered pricing in which products or services marketed to women are more expensive than similar products marketed to men. [[Gender-based price discrimination]] involves companies selling almost identical units of the same product or service at comparatively different prices, as determined by the target market. Studies have found that women pay about $1,400 a year more than men due to gendered discriminatory pricing. Although the "pink tax" of different goods and services is not uniform, overall women pay more for commodities that result in visual evidence of feminine body image.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Grauerholz|first2=Liz|last3=Weichsel|first3=Rebecca|last4=Guittar|first4=Nicholas A.|year=2011|title=The Cost of Doing Femininity: Gendered Disparities in Pricing of Personal Care Products and Services|journal=Gender Issues|volume=28|issue=4|pages=175–191|doi=10.1007/s12147-011-9106-3|first1=Megan|last1=Duesterhaus|s2cid=145812818}}</ref>{{Refn|For example, studies have shown that women are charged more for services especially tailoring, hair cutting and laundering.<ref name=":0" />|group=lower-roman}}

In addition, gender wage gap is a phenomenon of gender biases. That means women do the same job or work with their male counterpart, but they could not receive the same salary or opportunity at workforce.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Across the [[European Union]], for example, since women continue to hold lower-paying jobs, they earn 13% less than men on average. According to European Quality of Life Survey and European Working Conditions Survey data, women in the European Union work more hours but for less pay. Adult men (including the retired) work an average of 23 hours per week, compared to 15 hours for women.

Women continue to earn around 25% less than males. Almost a billion women are unable to obtain loans to establish a company or create a bank account in order to save money.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Bridging the Gender Gap in Access to Finance |url=https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/NEWS_EXT_CONTENT/IFC_External_Corporate_Site/News+and+Events/News/Bridging+the+Gender+Gap+in+Access+to+Finance |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=www.ifc.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Expanding Women's Access to Financial Services |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/04/01/banking-on-women-extending-womens-access-to-financial-services |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> Increasing women's equality in banking and the workplace might boost the global economy by up to $28 trillion by 2025.<ref name=":03"/><ref name=":02" /><ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Feloni |first=Richard |date=2019-03-08 |title=If we closed the gender gap by 2025, the global economy could see a $28 trillion windfall |url=https://www.businessinsider.nl/closing-gender-gap-could-add-as-much-as-28-trillion-to-global-economy-2019-3/ |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=Business Insider Nederland |language=nl}}</ref> Funding is becoming more available for this, for example with the European Investment Bank establishing the SheInvest program in 2020 with the goal of raising €1 billion in investments to assist women in obtaining loans and running enterprises across Africa.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web |title=Women's solutions stories create a world where everyone thrives |url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/women-solutions-stories |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Boosting gender equality around the world: EIB expands SheInvest initiative and strengthens cooperation with Development Bank of Rwanda |url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-411-boosting-gender-equality-around-the-world-eib-expands-sheinvest-initiative-and-strengthens-cooperation-with-development-bank-of-rwanda |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref>

The European Investment Bank funded an additional €2 billion in gender-lens investment in Africa, Asia, and Latin America at the Finance in Common Summit at the end of 2022.<ref name=":03" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Boosting gender equality around the world: European Investment Bank expands SheInvest initiative.... |url=https://www.businessghana.com/ |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=BusinessGhana}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://financeincommon.org/sites/default/files/2022-10/Finance%20in%20Common%20Progress%20Report%202022.pdf|title=Finance in Common FICS Progress Report}}</ref>

====Gendered arrangements of work and care====
{{Main|Women's work|Gender role}}
Since the 1950s, social scientists as well as feminists have increasingly criticized gendered arrangements of work and care and the male breadwinner role. Policies are increasingly targeting men as fathers as a tool of changing gender relations.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2014|title=Changing men, changing times; fathers and sons from an experimental gender equality study|url=http://www.margunnbjornholt.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Changing-men-changing-times-fathers-and-sons-from-an-experimental-gender-equality-study.pdf|journal=[[The Sociological Review]]|volume=62|issue=2|pages=295–315|doi=10.1111/1467-954X.12156|last1=Bjørnholt|first1=M.|s2cid=143048732|author-link1=Margunn Bjørnholt|access-date=2014-09-11|archive-date=2018-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021020857/http://www.margunnbjornholt.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Changing-men-changing-times-fathers-and-sons-from-an-experimental-gender-equality-study.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Shared earning/shared parenting marriage]], that is, a relationship where the partners collaborate at sharing their responsibilities inside and outside of the home, is often encouraged in Western countries.<ref name="Vachon">{{cite book|title=Equally Shared Parenting|last=Vachon|first=Marc and Amy|publisher=Perigree Trade|year=2010|isbn=978-0-399-53651-9|location=United States|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/equallysharedpar0000vach}}; {{cite book|title=Halving It All: How Equally Shared Parenting Works|url=https://archive.org/details/halvingitallhowe00deut|url-access=registration|author-link1=Francine Deutsch|last=Deutsch|first=Francine|date=April 2000|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-00209-8}}; {{cite book|title=Love Between Equals: How Peer Marriage Really Works|last=Schwartz|first=Pepper|date=September 1995|publisher=Touchstone|isbn=978-0-02-874061-4}}</ref>

Western countries with a strong emphasis on women fulfilling the role of homemakers, rather than a professional role, include parts of German speaking Europe (i.e. parts of Germany, Austria and Switzerland); as well as the Netherlands and Ireland.{{Refn|In 2011, [[Jose Manuel Barroso]], then president of the [[European Commission]], stated "Germany, but also Austria and the Netherlands, should look at the example of the northern countries [...] that means removing obstacles for women, older workers, foreigners and low-skilled job-seekers to get into the workforce".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.dw.com/en/germanys-persistently-low-birthrate-gets-marginal-boost/a-15325123-0 |title=Germany's persistently low birthrate gets marginal boost |date=18 August 2011 |website=Deutsche Welle |access-date=14 November 2017 |archive-date=15 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115082907/http://www.dw.com/en/germanys-persistently-low-birthrate-gets-marginal-boost/a-15325123-0 |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|The Netherlands and Ireland are among the last Western countries to accept women as professionals; despite the Netherlands having an image as progressive on gender issues, women in the Netherlands work less in paid employment than women in other comparable Western countries. In the early 1980s, the Commission of the [[European Communities]] report ''Women in the European Community'', found that the Netherlands and Ireland had the lowest labour participation of married women and the most public disapproval of it.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |quote=It is in the Netherlands (17.6%) and in Ireland (13.6%) that we see the smallest numbers of married women working and the least acceptance of this phenomenon by the general public |page=14 |url=http://aei.pitt.edu/4560/1/4560.pdf |title=Women in the European Community |date=1984 |access-date=2016-04-08 |archive-date=2015-11-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117014109/http://aei.pitt.edu/4560/1/4560.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In Ireland, until 1973, there was a [[marriage bar]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/sites/martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/files/Patterson.pdf|title=Martindale Center – Lehigh Business|website=Martindale.cc.lehigh.edu|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=8 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008154655/https://martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/sites/martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/files/Patterson.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In the Netherlands, from the 1990s onwards, the numbers of women entering the workplace have increased, but with most of the women [[part time job|working part time]]. As of 2014, the Netherlands and Switzerland were the only OECD members where most employed women worked part-time,<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/LMF_1_6_Gender_differences_in_employment_outcomes.pdf |title=LMF1.6: Gender differences in employment Outcomes |website=OECD - Social Policy Division |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071301/http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/LMF_1_6_Gender_differences_in_employment_outcomes.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> while in the United Kingdom, women made up two-thirds of workers on long term sick leave, despite making up only half of the workforce and even after excluding maternity leave.<ref group=upper-roman>{{Cite news|title=Women make up two-thirds of workers on long-term sick leave|last=Watts|first=Joseph|date=11 February 2014|work=[[London Evening Standard]]|page=10}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In the computer technology world of [[Silicon Valley]] in the United States, ''[[New York Times]]'' reporter [[Nellie Bowles]] has covered harassment and bias against women as well as a backlash against female equality.<ref name=twsNYTimes11>{{cite news |first=Nellie |last=Bowles |date=September 23, 2017 |website=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/23/technology/silicon-valley-men-backlash-gender-scandals.html |title=Push for Gender Equality in Tech? Some Men Say It's Gone Too Far |quote=...Silicon Valley has for years accommodated a fringe element of men who say women are ruining the tech world.... backlash against the women in technology movement ... surveys show there is no denying the travails women face in the male-dominated industry ... |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923161814/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/23/technology/silicon-valley-men-backlash-gender-scandals.html |archive-date=September 23, 2017}}</ref><ref name=twsWillamette101>{{cite web |first=Thacher |last=Schmid |date=March 12, 2018 |website=Willamette Week |url=http://www.wweek.com/technology/2018/03/12/while-startups-increasingly-move-to-portland-a-new-york-times-reporter-warns-that-theres-a-gender-problem-in-tech/ |title=While Startups Increasingly Move to Portland, a New York Times Reporter Warns That There's a "Gender Problem" in Tech |quote=...Bowles has written a number of groundbreaking stories on the "gender problem" in tech, including a profile of a "contrarian" fringe element of men leading a backlash against women asserting their rights.... |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=March 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312095939/https://www.wweek.com/technology/2018/03/12/while-startups-increasingly-move-to-portland-a-new-york-times-reporter-warns-that-theres-a-gender-problem-in-tech/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Females are underrepresented in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) at all levels of society. Fewer females are completing STEM school subjects, graduating with STEM degrees, being employed as STEM professionals, and holding senior leadership and academic positions in STEM. This problem is exacerbated by the gender pay gap; family role expectations; lack of visible role models or mentors; discrimination and harassment; and bias in hiring and promotion practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=Jodie |last2=Johnson |first2=Rebecca N. |last3=Wilson-Wilde |first3=Linzi |date=2019-07-29 |title=Gender equity: how do the forensic sciences fare? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00450618.2019.1568556 |journal=Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences |language=en |volume=51 |issue=sup1 |pages=S263–S267 |doi=10.1080/00450618.2019.1568556 |s2cid=86587238 |issn=0045-0618|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A key issue towards insuring gender equality in the workplace is the respecting of [[maternity rights]] and [[reproductive rights]] of women.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fawcettsociety.org.uk/Handlers/Download.ashx?IDMF=a40b96ed-8bf4-4db1-9ceb-71ca2d6fada4 |title=Modern workplaces, maternity rights, and gender equality |access-date=2016-04-26 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509134200/http://www.fawcettsociety.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Modern-Workplaces-Policy-Position-November-2012.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-09 |publisher = Fawcett Society |date = November 2012 }}</ref> Different countries have different rules regarding [[maternity leave]], paternity leave and [[parental leave]].{{Refn|In the [[European Union]] (EU) the policies vary significantly by country, but the EU members must abide by the minimum standards of the [[Pregnant Workers Directive]] and [[Parental Leave Directive]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/rights/work-life-balance/index_en.htm|title=Professional, private and family life – European Commission|website=Ec.europa.eu|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=22 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122183759/http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/rights/work-life-balance/index_en.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Another important issue is ensuring that employed women are not ''[[de jure]]'' or ''[[de facto]]'' prevented from having a child.{{Refn|For example, some countries have enacted legislation explicitly outlawing or restricting what they view as abusive clauses in [[employment contract]]s regarding reproductive rights (such as clauses which stipulate that a woman cannot get pregnant during a specified time) rendering such contracts [[void (law)|void]] or [[voidable]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/web/file?uuid=d01c336a-95bd-4b7d-b291-59623c7918be&owner=8318a38b-02db-4343-8ee4-c81474278688 |title=Private Law and Fundamental Rights: a sceptical view |last=Smits |first=Jan |date=October 2006 |publisher=University of Maastricht |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509070119/http://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/web/file?uuid=d01c336a-95bd-4b7d-b291-59623c7918be&owner=8318a38b-02db-4343-8ee4-c81474278688 |archive-date=May 9, 2016}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In some countries, employers ask women to sign formal or informal documents stipulating that they will not get pregnant or face legal punishment.<ref>For example, {{cite web|title=Law n. 202/2002, Art. 10 (4) and Art. 37|url=http://www.dreptonline.ro/legislatie/legea_egalitatii_sanse_femei.php|website=Romanian Law Online|language=ro|access-date=2016-04-26|archive-date=2016-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509000153/http://www.dreptonline.ro/legislatie/legea_egalitatii_sanse_femei.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Women often face severe violations of their reproductive rights at the hands of their employers; and the [[International Labour Organization]] classifies [[forced abortion]] coerced by the employer as [[Exploitation of labour|labour exploitation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@declaration/documents/publication/wcms_105035.pdf|title=Details of indicators for labour exploitation|website=Ilo.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153412/http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@declaration/documents/publication/wcms_105035.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Refn|Being the victim of a forced abortion compelled by the employer was ruled a ground of obtaining [[political asylum]] in the US.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6729339.stm|title=US asylum rule on forced abortion|website=News.bbc.co.uk|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115022913/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6729339.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Other abuses include routine [[virginity test]]s of unmarried employed women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.com/en/hrw-calls-on-indonesia-to-scrap-virginity-tests-for-female-police/a-18082547|title=HRW calls on Indonesia to scrap 'virginity tests' for female police|website=Dw.com|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115082713/http://www.dw.com/en/hrw-calls-on-indonesia-to-scrap-virginity-tests-for-female-police/a-18082547|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.igfm-muenchen.de/tibet/Phayul/2006/TWA-CEDAWReport_Aug2006_form.pdf|title=THE CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN (CEDAW)|website=Igfm-muenchen.de|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153408/http://www.igfm-muenchen.de/tibet/Phayul/2006/TWA-CEDAWReport_Aug2006_form.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{See also|Parental leave#Effects on gender equality|l1=Effect of parental leave policies on gender equality}}

====Gendered arrangements of conscription====
{{Main|Conscription#Drafting of women|Conscription and sexism}}
Military and conscription has been historically generally gender inequal.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Michalowski|first1=Helen|title=Five feminist principles and the draft|journal=Resistance News|date=May 1982|issue=8|page=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Neudel|first1=Marian Henriquez|title=Feminism and the Draft|journal=Resistance News|date=July 1983|issue=13|page=7}}</ref> Increasingly women are [[Social exclusion#Social inclusion|included]] in the military.<ref name=":0b">{{Cite book|title=The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men and Boys|last=Benatar|first=David|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-0-470-67451-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdIrkGLHLPsC|author-link=David Benatar|access-date=April 26, 2015|date=May 15, 2012}}</ref> Currently only a few countries in the world, including Norway and Sweden, have gender-equal formal rules for conscription.<ref name=":4b">{{Cite journal|last1=Persson|first1=Alma|last2=Sundevall|first2=Fia|date=2019-03-22|title=Conscripting women: gender, soldiering, and military service in Sweden 1965–2018|journal=Women's History Review|volume=28|issue=7|pages=1039–1056|doi=10.1080/09612025.2019.1596542|issn=0961-2025|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Gender Equality Index|Gender Equality Indices]] have been criticized for neglecting conscription as a source of formal gender inequality.<ref name="h625">{{cite journal | last1=Heikkilä | first1=Jussi | last2=Laukkanen | first2=Ina | title=Gender-specific Call of Duty: A Note on the Neglect of Conscription in Gender Equality Indices | journal=Defence and Peace Economics | volume=33 | issue=5 | date=4 July 2022 | issn=1024-2694 | doi=10.1080/10242694.2020.1844400 | pages=603–615| arxiv=2201.09270 }}</ref>

====Freedom of movement====
{{Further|Freedom of movement}}
[[File:Group of Women Wearing Burkas.jpg|thumb|Women in [[Afghanistan]] wearing [[burqa]]s. Some clothes that women are required to wear, by law or custom, can restrict their movements.]]
The degree to which women can participate (in law and in practice) in public life varies by culture and socioeconomic characteristics. [[Seclusion]] of women within the home was a common practice among the [[upper classes]] of many societies, and this still remains the case today in some societies. Before the 20th century it was also common in parts of Southern Europe, such as much of Spain.<ref>''Liberating Women's History:Theoretical and Critical Essays'', edited by Berenice A. Carroll, pp. 161–2</ref>

Women's [[freedom of movement]] continues to be legally restricted in some parts of the world. This restriction is often due to [[marriage laws]].{{Refn|For instance, in [[Yemen]], marriage regulations stipulate that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.<ref name="www2.ohchr.org" group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf|title=Yemen's Dark Side: Discrimination and violence against women and girls.|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=26 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326165645/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In some countries, women must legally be accompanied by their male guardians (such as the husband or male relative) when they leave home.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/24691034|title=Why can't women drive in Saudi Arabia?|publisher=BBC|access-date=14 June 2015|date=27 October 2013|archive-date=5 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105205216/http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/24691034|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) states at Article 15 (4) that:
{{Blockquote|4. States Parties shall accord to men and women the same rights with regard to the law relating to the movement of persons and the freedom to choose their residence and domicile.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm |title=CEDAW 29th Session 30 June to 25 July 2003 |access-date=14 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406123853/http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm |archive-date=April 6, 2011 }}</ref>}}

In addition to laws, women's freedom of movement is also restricted by social and religious norms.{{Refn|For example, [[purdah]], a religious and social practice of female seclusion prevalent among some Muslim communities in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]] as well as upper-caste Hindus in [[North India|Northern India]], such as the [[Rajputs]], which often leads to the minimizing of the movement of women in public spaces and restrictions on their social and professional interactions;<ref name=Papanek group=upper-roman>{{cite journal | last1 = Papanek | first1 = Hanna | year = 1973 | title = Purdah: Separate Worlds and Symbolic Shelter | journal = Comparative Studies in Society and History | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 289–325 | doi = 10.1017/S001041750000712X | s2cid = 144508005 }}</ref> or [[namus]], a cultural concept strongly related to [[family honor]].|group=lower-roman}} Restrictions on freedom of movement also exist due to traditional practices such as [[Baad (practice)|baad]], [[Swara (custom)|swara]], or [[Vani (custom)|vani]].{{Refn|Common especially among [[Pashtun tribes]] in Pakistan and Afghanistan, whereby a girl is given from one family to another (often though a marriage), in order to settle the disputes and feuds between the families. The girl, who now belongs to the second family, has very little autonomy and freedom, her role being to serve the new family.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=49dc4b201c|title=Afghan Girls Suffer for Sins of Male Relatives|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|website=Refworld|access-date=2015-10-10|archive-date=2015-10-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018234916/http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=49dc4b201c|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.newspakistan.pk/2011/10/26/vani-pain-of-child-marriage-in-our-society/|title=Vani: Pain of child marriage in our society|website=News Pakistan|date=2011-10-26|access-date=2015-10-10|archive-date=2014-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603165151/http://www.newspakistan.pk/2011/10/26/vani-pain-of-child-marriage-in-our-society/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{cite journal |last1=Nasrullah |first1=M. |last2=Muazzam |first2=S. |last3=Bhutta |first3=Z. A. |last4=Raj |first4=A. |year=2013 |title=Girl Child Marriage and Its Effect on Fertility in Pakistan: Findings from Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey, 2006–2007 |journal=Maternal and Child Health Journal |pages=1–10 }}</ref><ref name=hk2004 group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://fact.com.pk/archives/july/feng/vani.htm |title=Vani a social evil |first1=Anwar |last1=Hashmi |first2=Rifat |last2=Koukab |website=The Fact |date=July 2004 |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=November 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117192829/http://fact.com.pk/archives/july/feng/vani.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Ahsan, I. (2009). PANCHAYATS AND JIRGAS (LOK ADALATS): Alternative Dispute Resolution System in Pakistan. Strengthening Governance Through Access To Justice</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

====Girls' access to education====
{{Main|Female education|Gender and education}}
In many parts of the world, girls' access to education is very restricted. In developing parts of the world women are often denied opportunities for education as girls and women face many obstacles. These include: early and forced marriages; early pregnancy; prejudice based on gender stereotypes at home, at school and in the community; violence on the way to school, or in and around schools; long distances to schools; vulnerability to the HIV epidemic; school fees, which often lead to parents sending only their sons to school; lack of gender sensitive approaches and materials in classrooms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teachers.org.uk/node/12978|title=Global issues affecting women and girls |website=National Union of Teachers|access-date=14 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429020903/http://www.teachers.org.uk/node/12978|archive-date=29 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.campaignforeducationusa.org/obstacles-to-education-for-girls-and-women|title=Global Campaign For Education United States Chapter|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=16 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916235149/http://campaignforeducationusa.org/obstacles-to-education-for-girls-and-women|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://plan-international.org/files/Africa/progress-and-obstacles-to-girls-education-in-africa|title=Progress and Obstacles to Girls' Education in Africa|website=Plan International|date=16 July 2015|access-date=21 June 2014|archive-date=29 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729202549/http://plan-international.org/files/Africa/progress-and-obstacles-to-girls-education-in-africa|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[OHCHR]], there have been multiple attacks on schools worldwide during the period 2009–2014 with "a number of these attacks being specifically directed at girls, parents and teachers advocating for gender equality in education".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15555&LangID=E|title=Attacks against girls' education occurring with "increasing regularity" – UN human rights report|date=9 February 2015|website=Ohchr.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-03-27|archive-date=2018-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113244/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15555&LangID=E|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[United Nations Population Fund]] says:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/gender-equality|title=Gender equality|website=[[United Nations Population Fund]]|access-date=17 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520233303/https://www.unfpa.org/gender-equality|archive-date=20 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|About two thirds of the world's [[Gender disparities in literacy|illiterate]] adults are women. Lack of an education severely restricts a woman's access to information and opportunities. Conversely, increasing women's and girls' educational attainment benefits both individuals and future generations. Higher levels of women's education are strongly associated with lower infant mortality and lower fertility, as well as better outcomes for their children.}}According to [[UNESCO]], extreme exclusion still characterizes some countries, and pockets of exclusion remain in others. In Afghanistan, where girls have been banned again from secondary schools, there had been rapid progress in completion rates. For example, girls' primary completion increased from 8% in 2000 to 56% in 2020, although the gender gap remained at 20 percentage points. In some provinces, such as Uruzgan, just 1% of girls completed primary in 2015. A 20 percentage point gender gap in access to upper secondary education is also observed in sub-Saharan African countries, including Chad and Guinea.<ref>Global Education Monitoring Report Team (2022). [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381329.locale=en ''Global education monitoring report 2022: gender report, deepening the debate on those still left behind''.] UNESCO. {{ISBN|978-92-3-100524-4}}.</ref>

====Political participation of women====
{{Main|Women in government}}

[[File:Countries with female Heads of State and Government.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Map showing countries which since independence have had (counting [[Governor-General|Governors-General]] as heads of state, but excluding monarchs):
{{legend|#ffeda6|Female head of government{{Efn|name="Peru"}}}}
{{legend|#91c3ff|Female head of state{{Efn|name="Andorra"}}}}
{{legend|#91eb91|Female head of state/government (combined)}}
{{legend|#BB71BB|Female head of state and female head of government}}
Three former sovereign states ([[Sabine Bergmann-Pohl|East Germany]], [[Khertek Anchimaa-Toka|Tannu Tuva]], and [[Milka Planinc|Yugoslavia]]) have also had a female Head of State or Head of Government]] [[File:Map3.8Government Participation by Women compressed.jpg|right|thumb|A world map showing countries governmental participation by women, 2010]]

Women are underrepresented in most countries' National Parliaments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm|title=Women in Parliaments: World and Regional Averages|website=Ipu.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=30 March 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070330191653/http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The 2011 UN General Assembly resolution on women's political participation called for female participation in politics, and expressed concern about the fact that "women in every part of the world continue to be largely marginalized from the political sphere".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dag.un.org/handle/11176/294223 |title=Women and Political Participation: resolution |website=United Nations |access-date=14 November 2017 |date=March 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303105958/http://dag.un.org/handle/11176/294223 |archive-date=3 March 2018}}</ref>{{Refn|The Council of Europe states that:<ref name="coe.int">{{cite web|url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/genderequality/gender-equality-strategy|title=Gender Equality Strategy 2014–2017|website=Council of Europe|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=16 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516223227/https://www.coe.int/en/web/genderequality/gender-equality-strategy|url-status=live}}</ref>
:"Pluralist democracy requires balanced participation of women and men in political and public decision-making. Council of Europe standards provide clear guidance on how to achieve this."|group=lower-roman}} Only 22 percent of parliamentarians globally are women and therefore, men continue to occupy most positions of political and legal authority.<ref name="unfpa.org1" /> As of November 2014, women accounted for 28% of members of the single or lower houses of parliaments in the [[European Union]] member states.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-decision-making/index_en.htm|title=Gender balance in decision-making positions|website=Ec.europa.eu|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=17 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117163226/http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-decision-making/index_en.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In some Western countries{{Which|date=December 2023}} women have only recently{{When|date=December 2023}} [[Women's suffrage|obtained the right to vote]].{{Refn|Notably in [[Switzerland]], where women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971;<ref name="switzerland-chronology" group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html |title=The Long Way to Women's Right to Vote in Switzerland: a Chronology |publisher=History-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch |access-date=2011-01-08 |archive-date=2019-11-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121120734/http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html |url-status=live }}</ref> but in the canton of [[Appenzell Innerrhoden]] women obtained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the [[Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/WOM1373.doc.htm |title=United Nations press release of a meeting of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), issued on 14 January 2003 |publisher=Un.org |access-date=2011-09-02 |archive-date=2013-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618092604/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/WOM1373.doc.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

In 2015, 61.3% of [[Rwanda]]'s [[Lower house|Lower House]] of Parliament were women, the highest proportion anywhere in the world, but worldwide that was one of only two such bodies where women were in the majority, the other being [[Bolivia]]'s Lower House of Parliament.<ref name=IPU2015a>{{cite web |author=Inter-Parliamentary Union |date=1 August 2015 |title=Women in national parliaments |author-link=Inter-Parliamentary Union |url=http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm |access-date=31 August 2015 |archive-date=28 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328105108/http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> (See also [[Gender equality in Rwanda]]).

====Marriage, divorce and property laws and regulations====
Equal rights for women in marriage, divorce, and property/land ownership and inheritance are essential for gender equality. The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has called for the end of discriminatory [[family law]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Equalityinfamilyrelationsrecognizingwomensrightstoproperty.aspx|title=Equality in family relations: recognizing women's rights to property|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=10 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113353/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Equalityinfamilyrelationsrecognizingwomensrightstoproperty.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2013, UN Women stated that "While at least 115 countries recognize equal land rights for women and men, effective implementation remains a major challenge".<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/11/womens-land-rights-are-human-rights-says-new-un-report|title = Women's land rights are human rights, says new UN report|date = 11 November 2013|newspaper = Un Women – Headquarters|access-date = 2 March 2018|archive-date = 22 December 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171222072443/http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/11/womens-land-rights-are-human-rights-says-new-un-report|url-status = live}}</ref>

The legal and social treatment of married women has been often discussed as a political issue from the 19th century onwards.{{Refn|[[John Stuart Mill]], in ''[[The Subjection of Women]]'' (1869) compared marriage to [[slavery]] and wrote that: "The law of servitude in marriage is a monstrous contradiction to all the principles of the modern world, and to all the experience through which those principles have been slowly and painfully worked out."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mill-john-stuart/1869/subjection-women/ch04.htm|title=The Subjection of Women by John Stuart Mill|website=Marxists.org|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=18 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918233515/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mill-john-stuart/1869/subjection-women/ch04.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In 1957, James Everett, then Minister for Justice in Ireland, stated: "The progress of organised society is judged by the status occupied by married women".<ref name=Oireachtas group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url= http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/seanad1957011600008?opendocument |title= Married Women's Status Bill, 1956—Second Stage: Minister for Justice (Mr. Everett) |website= [[Houses of the Oireachtas|Oireachtas]] |date= 16 January 1957 |access-date= 6 September 2015 |archive-date= 26 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150926014352/http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/seanad1957011600008?opendocument |url-status= live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Until the 1970s, legal subordination of married women was common across European countries, through [[marriage laws]] giving legal authority to the husband, as well as through [[marriage bar]]s.{{Refn|In France, married women obtained the right to work without their husband's consent in 1965;<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |title=Modern & Contemporary France: Women in France |website=Routledge |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092212/http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> while the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970 (before that parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children); and a new reform in 1985 abolished the stipulation that the father had the sole power to administer the children's property.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|title=National Report: France|website=Ceflonline.net|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=11 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811145534/http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In [[Austria]], the marriage law was overhauled between 1975 and 1983, abolishing the restrictions on married women's right to work outside the home, providing for equality between spouses, and for joint ownership of property and assets.<ref group=upper-roman>''Women and Politics in Contemporary Ireland: From the Margins to the Mainstream'', by Yvonne Galligan, pp.90</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In 1978, the [[Council of Europe]] passed the ''Resolution (78) 37 on equality of spouses in civil law''.<ref>{{cite web|title=RESOLUTION (78) 37 ON EQUALITY OF SPOUSES IN CIVIL LAW|url=https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage=596422&SecMode=1&DocId=662346&Usage=2|publisher=Council of Europe|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121025014/https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage=596422&SecMode=1&DocId=662346&Usage=2|archive-date=21 January 2016|date=27 September 1978}}</ref> [[Switzerland]] was one of the last countries in Europe to establish gender equality in marriage, in this country married women's rights were severely restricted until 1988, when legal reforms providing for gender equality in marriage, abolishing the legal authority of the husband, come into force (these reforms had been approved in 1985 by voters in a [[Voting in Switzerland|referendum]], who narrowly voted in favor with 54.7% of voters approving).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/23/world/swiss-grant-women-equal-marriage-rights.html|title=SWISS GRANT WOMEN EQUAL MARRIAGE RIGHTS|date=23 September 1985|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Times|first1=Special to the New York|access-date=8 February 2017|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111232657/https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/23/world/swiss-grant-women-equal-marriage-rights.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|title=Switzerland Profile: Timeline|website=BBC News|date=21 December 2017|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-date=17 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617053429/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto3">{{cite web|url=http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|title=The Long Way to Women's Right to Vote in Switzerland: a Chronology|author=Markus G. Jud|website=History-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=21 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121120734/http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto1"/> In the [[Netherlands]], it was only in 1984 that full legal equality between husband and wife was achieved: prior to 1984 the law stipulated that the husband's opinion prevailed over the wife's regarding issues such as decisions on children's education and the domicile of the family.<ref>''The Economics of Imperfect Labor Markets: Second Edition'', by Tito Boeri, Jan van Ours, pp. 105</ref><ref>{{cite web|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170906070337/https://rm.coe.int/168045ae0e |archive-date = 6 September 2017| title = Dutch gender and LGBT-equality policy 2013–2016|url = https://rm.coe.int/168045ae0e}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/Gender/publication/Netherlands_2015_Review_BPFA_Report_of_the_Netherlands_Government.pdf|title=2015 Review Report of the Netherlands Government in the context of the twentieth anniversary of the Fourth World Conference on Women and the adoption of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action|website=Unece.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=5 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005144755/http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/Gender/publication/Netherlands_2015_Review_BPFA_Report_of_the_Netherlands_Government.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the [[United States]], a wife's legal subordination to her husband was fully ended by the case of ''[[Kirchberg v. Feenstra]]'', {{Ussc|450|455|1981|el=no}}, a [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] case in which the Court held a [[Louisiana]] [[Head and Master law]], which gave sole control of marital property to the husband, unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/450/455/|title=Kirchberg v. Feenstra :: 450 U.S. 455 (1981) :: Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center|website=Justia Law|access-date=2015-10-10|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130159/https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/450/455/|url-status=live}}</ref>

There have been and sometimes continue to be unequal treatment of married women in various aspects of everyday life. For example, in [[Australia]], until 1983 a husband had to authorize an application for an [[Australian passport]] for a married woman.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.passports.gov.au/Web/passport_history.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614171552/http://www.passports.gov.au/Web/passport_history.aspx|title=The History of Passports in Australia|archive-date=14 June 2006|access-date=14 November 2017}}</ref> Other practices have included, and in many countries continue to include, a requirement for a husband's consent for an application for bank loans and credit cards by a married woman, as well as restrictions on the wife's [[reproductive rights]], such as a requirement that the husband consents to the wife's acquiring [[contraception]] or having an [[abortion]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.ca/sites/default/files/womens_lives_womens_rights_campaigning.pdf|title=Women's Lives Women's Rights: Campaigning for maternal health and sexual and reproductive rights.|website=Amnesty.ca|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=26 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626165326/http://www.amnesty.ca/sites/default/files/womens_lives_womens_rights_campaigning.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/AmnestyInternational_for_PSWG_en_Indonesia.pdf|title=Left without a choice : Barriers to reproductive health in Indonesia|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=23 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423125558/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/AmnestyInternational_for_PSWG_en_Indonesia.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In some places, although the law itself no longer requires the consent of the husband for various actions taken by the wife, the practice continues ''[[de facto]]'', with the authorization of the husband being asked in practice.<ref>{{cite book|title = Education For Women|first =D. Bhaskara|last = Rao|page = 161|date = 2004|publisher = Discovery Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7141-873-2}}</ref>

Although [[dowry]] is today mainly associated with [[South Asia]], the practice has been common until the mid-20th century in parts of [[Southeast Europe]].{{Refn|For example, in [[Greece]] dowry was removed from [[family law]] only in 1983 through legal changes which reformed marriage law and provided gender equality in marriage.<ref group=upper-roman>Demos, Vasilikie. (2007) "The Intersection of Gender, Class and Nationality and the Agency of Kytherian Greek Women." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association. August 11.</ref> These changes also dealt with the practice of women [[Married and maiden names|changing their surnames to that of the husbands]] upon getting married, a practice which has been outlawed or restricted in some jurisdictions, because it is seen as contrary to women's rights. As such, women in Greece are required to ''keep'' their birth names for their whole life.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/oct/06/women-change-name-after-marriage-greece |title=Should women change their names after marriage? Ask a Greek woman |first=Heather |last=Long |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2013-10-06 |access-date=2016-12-11 |archive-date=2013-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006115711/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/oct/06/women-change-name-after-marriage-greece |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

Laws regulating marriage and divorce continue to discriminate against women in many countries.{{Refn|For example, in [[Yemen]], marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.<ref name="www2.ohchr.org" group=upper-roman />|group=lower-roman}} In [[Iraq]] husbands have a legal right to "punish" their wives, with paragraph 41 of the criminal code stating that there is no crime if an act is committed while exercising a legal right.{{Refn|Examples of legal rights include: "The punishment of a wife by her husband, the disciplining by parents and teachers of children under their authority within certain limits prescribed by law or by custom".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf |title=The Penal-Code with Amendments |access-date=April 25, 2021 |date=1969 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021100954/http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf |archive-date=October 21, 2012 }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In the 1990s and the 21st century there has been progress in many countries in Africa: for instance in Namibia the [[marital power]] of the husband was abolished in 1996 by the ''Married Persons Equality Act''; in Botswana it was abolished in 2004 by the ''Abolition of Marital Power Act''; and in Lesotho it was abolished in 2006 by the ''Married Persons Equality Act''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/lesotho.htm |title=The Law and Legal Research in Lesotho |author=Buhle Angelo Dube |date=February 2008 |access-date=2010-07-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620014058/http://nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Lesotho.htm |archive-date=2010-06-20 }}</ref> Violence against a wife continues to be seen as legally acceptable in some countries; for instance in 2010, the [[United Arab Emirates]] Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to physically discipline his wife and children as long as he does not leave physical marks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/10/19/uae.court.ruling/index.html?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Court in UAE says beating wife, child OK if no marks are left|website=CNN|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115015526/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/10/19/uae.court.ruling/index.html?_s=PM:WORLD|url-status=live}}</ref> The criminalization of [[adultery]] has been criticized as being a prohibition, which, in law or in practice, is used primarily against women; and incites violence against women ([[crimes of passion]], honor killings).{{Refn|A Joint Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice in 2012 stated:<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12672& |title=Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306103836/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12672& |archive-date=2015-03-06 }}</ref> "the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice is deeply concerned at the criminalization and penalization of adultery whose enforcement leads to discrimination and violence against women." UN Women also stated that "Drafters should repeal any criminal offenses related to adultery or extramarital sex between consenting adults".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/738-decriminalization-of-adultery-and-defenses.html%29|title=Decriminalization of adultery and defenses|website=Endvawnow.org|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=8 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108112544/http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/738-decriminalization-of-adultery-and-defenses.html%29|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

===Social and ideological===

====Political gender equality====
Two recent movements in countries with large Kurdish populations have implemented political gender equality. One has been the Kurdish movement in southeastern Turkey led by the [[Democratic Regions Party]] (DBP) and the [[Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)|Peoples' Democratic Party]] (HDP),<!-- The apostrophe is correctly placed. The party is pro-minority, and the name is also translated as Democratic Party of the People{{uu|s}} --> from 2006 or before.
The mayorships of 2 metropolitan areas and 97 towns{{citation needed|date=January 2018|reason= The citation was to [[2014 Turkish local elections]]. See [[WP:CIRC]] and [[Talk:Gender equality#new section Political Gender Equality|Political Gender Equality]].}} are led jointly by a man and a woman, both called co-mayors. Party offices are also led by a man and a woman. Local councils were formed, which also had to be co-presided over by a man and a woman together. However, in November 2016 the Turkish government cracked down on the HDP, jailing ten of its members of Parliament, including the party's male and female co-leaders.<ref name=Nordland>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/07/world/middleeast/turkey-kurds-womens-rights.html |title=Crackdown in Turkey Threatens a Haven of Gender Equality Built by Kurds |last=Nordland |first=Rod |date=2016-12-07 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2018-01-23 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2019-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227131020/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/07/world/middleeast/turkey-kurds-womens-rights.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

A movement in northern Syria, also Kurdish, has been led by the [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]] (PYD).<ref name=Mogelson>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/11/06/dark-victory-in-raqqa|title=Dark Victory in Raqqa|last=Mogelson|first=Luke|date=2017-10-30|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=2018-01-23|issn=0028-792X|archive-date=2018-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414174302/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/11/06/dark-victory-in-raqqa|url-status=live}}</ref> In northern Syria all villages, towns and cities governed by the PYD were co-governed by a man and a woman. Local councils were formed where each sex had to have 40% representation, and minorities also had to be represented.<ref name=Mogelson />

====Gender stereotypes====
{{Further|Gender role}}
[[File:Bettie Page driving.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Series of photographs lampooning women drivers|1952 portrayal of stereotypes about women drivers, based on the stereotype that women cannot drive well. Features [[Bettie Page]].]]
Gender [[stereotype]]s arise from the socially approved roles of women and men in the private or public sphere, at home or in the workplace. In the household, women are typically seen as mother figures, which usually places them into a typical classification of being "supportive" or "nurturing". Women are expected to want to take on the role of a mother and take on primary responsibility for household needs.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Women Voices and Feminist Visions|last=Shaw and Lee|first=Susan and Janet|page=450|quote=Women are expected to want to be mothers}}</ref> Their male counterparts are seen as being "assertive" or "ambitious" as men are usually seen in the workplace or as the primary breadwinner for his family.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.geteverwise.com/human-resources/how-does-gender-bias-really-affect-women-in-the-workplace/|title=How Does Gender Bias Really Affect Women in the Workplace?|date=2016-03-24|language=en-US|access-date=2016-09-23|archive-date=2017-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115015212/https://www.geteverwise.com/human-resources/how-does-gender-bias-really-affect-women-in-the-workplace/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to these views and expectations, women often face discrimination in the public sphere, such as the workplace.<ref name="auto"/> Women are stereotyped to be less productive at work because they are believed to focus more on family when they get married or have children.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Durbin |first1=Susan |title=Gender inequality in employment: Editors' introduction |journal=Equality, Diversity and Inclusion |date=2010 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=221–238 |doi=10.1108/02610151011028831}}</ref>
A [[gender role]] is a set of societal [[norm (social)|norms]] dictating the types of behaviors which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of [[femininity]] and [[masculinity]], although there are [[Third gender|exceptions]] and [[genderqueer|variations]].

====Portrayal of women in the media====
{{Main|Exploitation of women in mass media}}
The way women are represented in the media has been criticized as perpetuating negative gender stereotypes. The [[exploitation of women in mass media]] refers to the criticisms that are levied against the use or objectification of women in the [[mass media]], when such use or portrayal aims at increasing the appeal of media or a product, to the detriment of, or without regard to, the interests of the women portrayed, or women in general. Concerns include the fact that all forms of media have the power to shape the population's perceptions and portray images of unrealistic stereotypical perceptions by portraying women either as submissive housewives or as sex objects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2013/474442/IPOL-FEMM_ET%282013%29474442_EN.pdf|title=Women and Girls as Subjects of Media's Attention and Advertisement Campaigns : The Situation in Europe, Best Practices and Legislations|website=Europarl.europa.eu|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=18 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118182934/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2013/474442/IPOL-FEMM_ET(2013)474442_EN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The media emphasizes traditional domestic or sexual roles that normalize violence against women. The vast array of studies that have been conducted on the issue of the portrayal of women in the media have shown that women are often portrayed as irrational, fragile, not intelligent, submissive and
subservient to men.<ref name="Acevedo 2010">Acevedo et al. 2010. 'A Content Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Commercials: 1973 – 2008', Revista Brasileira de Marketing Vol. 9. Universidade Nove de Julho, São Paulo.</ref> Research has shown that stereotyped images such as these have been shown to negatively impact on the mental health of many female viewers who feel bound by these roles, causing amongst other problems, self-esteem issues, depression and anxiety.<ref name="Acevedo 2010"/>

According to a study, the way women are often portrayed by the media can lead to: "Women of average or normal appearance feeling inadequate or less beautiful in comparison to the overwhelming use of extraordinarily attractive women"; "Increase in the likelihood and acceptance of sexual violence"; "Unrealistic expectations by men of how women should look or behave"; "Psychological disorders such as body dysmorphic disorder, anorexia, bulimia and so on"; "The importance of physical appearance is emphasized and reinforced early in most girls' development." Studies have found that nearly half of females ages six–eight have stated they want to be slimmer. (Striegel-Moore & Franko, 2002)".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.westminstercollege.edu/myriad/index.cfm?parent=...&detail=4475&content=4795|title=The Myriad: Westminster's Interactive Academic Journal|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428172944/http://www.westminstercollege.edu/myriad/index.cfm?parent=...&detail=4475&content=4795|archive-date=2016-04-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/gretchen-kelly/the-thing-all-women-do-you-dont-know-about_b_8630416.html|title=The Thing All Women Do That You Don't Know About|first=Gretchen|last=Kelly|work=[[Huffington Post]]|date=November 23, 2015|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020152712/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/gretchen-kelly/the-thing-all-women-do-you-dont-know-about_b_8630416.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Statistics on women's representation in the media====
* Women have won only a quarter of [[Pulitzer Prize|Pulitzer prizes]] for foreign reporting and only 17 per cent of awards of the [[Martha Gellhorn Prize for Journalism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/03/women-foreign-correspondents/472596/|title=Why Don't Female Journalists Win More Awards?|last=Asquith|first=Christina|date=2016-03-07|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-21|archive-date=2019-01-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126024723/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/03/women-foreign-correspondents/472596/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015 the [[African Development Bank]] began sponsoring a category for [[Women's rights|Women's Right]]s in Africa, designed to promote gender equality through the media, as one of the prizes awarded annually by [[One World Media]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/african-development-bank-promotes-gender-equality-in-the-media-through-womens-rights-in-africa-award-14447|title=African Development Bank promotes gender equality in the media through 'Women's Rights in Africa' Award|date=2019-02-13|website=African Development Bank – Building today, a better Africa tomorrow|language=en|access-date=2019-08-21|archive-date=2019-08-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821083615/https://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/african-development-bank-promotes-gender-equality-in-the-media-through-womens-rights-in-africa-award-14447|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Created in 1997, the [[UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize]] is an annual award that honors a person, organization or institution that has made a notable contribution to the defense and/or promotion of press freedom anywhere in the world. Nine out of 20 winners have been women.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018|publisher=UNESCO|year=2018|url=http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=261065&set=005B2B7D1D_3_314&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1|page=202}}</ref>
* The [[Poynter Institute]] since 2014 has been running a Leadership Academy for Women in Digital Media, expressly focused on the skills and knowledge needed to achieve success in the digital media environment.
* The [[World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers|World Association of Newspapers and News Publisher]]s (WAN-IFRA), which represents more than 18,000 publications, 15,000 online sites and more than 3,000 companies in more than 120 countries, leads the Women in the News (WIN) campaign together with UNESCO as part of their Gender and Media Freedom Strategy. In their 2016 handbook, WINing Strategies: Creating Stronger Media Organizations by Increasing Gender Diversity, they highlight a range of positive action strategies undertaken by a number of their member organizations from [[Germany]] to [[Jordan]] to [[Colombia]], with the intention of providing blueprints for others to follow.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wan-ifra.org/reports/2018/05/28/winning-strategies-creating-stronger-news-media-organizations-by-increasing-gende|title=WINning Strategies – Creating Stronger News Media Organizations by Increasing Gender Diversity (2018 update) – WAN-IFRA|website=www.wan-ifra.org|access-date=2019-08-21|archive-date=2020-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921082454/https://www.wan-ifra.org/reports/2018/05/28/winning-strategies-creating-stronger-news-media-organizations-by-increasing-gende|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Informing women of their rights====
While in many countries, the problem lies in the lack of adequate legislation, in others the principal problem is not as much the lack of a legal framework, but the fact that most women do not know their legal rights. This is especially the case as many of the laws dealing with women's rights are of recent date. This lack of knowledge enables to abusers to lead the victims (explicitly or implicitly) to believe that their abuse is within their rights. This may apply to a wide range of abuses, ranging from domestic violence to employment discrimination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/law-crime-and-justice/criminal-justice/bc-criminal-justice-system/if-victim/publications/hsh-english-domestic-violence.pdf|title=Help is available if you or someone you know is a victim of Domestic Violence|website=2.gov.bc.ca|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=8 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108030110/https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/law-crime-and-justice/criminal-justice/bc-criminal-justice-system/if-victim/publications/hsh-english-domestic-violence.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maternityaction.org.uk/2015/01/know-your-rights-get-your-rights/|title=Know your rights – get your rights!|website=Maternityaction.org.uk|access-date=14 November 2017|date=2015-01-14|archive-date=2018-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103014001/https://www.maternityaction.org.uk/2015/01/know-your-rights-get-your-rights/|url-status=live}}</ref> The United Nations Development Programme states that, in order to advance gender justice, "Women must know their rights and be able to access legal systems".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/crisispreventionandrecovery/focus_areas/gender_equality_andwomensempowerment/eight_point_agendaforwomensempowermentandgenderequality.html|title=Eight Point Agenda for Women's Empowerment and Gender Equality|website=Undp.org|access-date=14 November 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170509195554/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/crisispreventionandrecovery/focus_areas/gender_equality_andwomensempowerment/eight_point_agendaforwomensempowermentandgenderequality.html|archive-date=9 May 2017}}</ref>

The 1993 UN [[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]] states at Art. 4 (d) [...] "States should also inform women of their rights in seeking redress through such mechanisms".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm|title=A/RES/48/104 – Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women – UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements|first=United Nations General|last=Assembly|website=Un-documents.net|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=4 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804222717/http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Enacting protective legislation against violence has little effect, if women do not know how to use it: for example a study of Bedouin women in Israel found that 60% did not know what a [[restraining order]] was;<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/study-most-bedouin-victims-of-domestic-violence-believe-it-s-a-decree-from-god-1.427190|title=Study: Most Bedouin Victims of Domestic Violence Believe It's a 'Decree From God'|first=Jack|last=Khoury|date=30 April 2012|newspaper=Haaretz|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143740/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/study-most-bedouin-victims-of-domestic-violence-believe-it-s-a-decree-from-god-1.427190|url-status=live}}</ref> or if they do not know what acts are illegal: a report by Amnesty International showed in Hungary, in a public opinion poll of nearly 1,200 people in 2006, a total of 62% did not know that marital rape was an illegal (it was outlawed in 1997) and therefore the crime was rarely reported.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/465bfa162.pdf|title=Hungary : Cries unheard : The failure to protect women from rape and sexual violence in the home|website=Refworld.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153402/http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/465bfa162.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6643727.stm|title=Hungary law 'fails rape victims'|date=10 May 2007|work=[[BBC]]|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=26 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026004038/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6643727.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Ensuring women have a minimum understanding of health issues is also important: lack of access to reliable medical information and available medical procedures to which they are entitled hurts [[women's health]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gender/women_health_report/full_report_20091104_en.pdf|title=Women and health : today's evidence tomorrow's agenda|website=Who.int|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=25 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125163944/http://www.who.int/gender/women_health_report/full_report_20091104_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Gender mainstreaming====
{{Main|Gender mainstreaming}}
Gender mainstreaming is described as the [[public policy]] of assessing the different implications for women and men of any planned [[policy]] action, including [[legislation]] and [[Program (management)|programmes]], in all areas and levels, with the aim of achieving gender equality.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Booth | first1 = C. | last2 = Bennett | year = 2002 | title = Gender Mainstreaming in the European Union | journal = European Journal of Women's Studies | volume = 9 | issue = 4| pages = 430–46 | doi = 10.1177/13505068020090040401 | s2cid = 143702617 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/gender/newsite2002/about/defin.htm|title=Definition of Gender Mainstreaming|website=International Labor Organization|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021172809/http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/gender/newsite2002/about/defin.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The concept of gender mainstreaming was first proposed at the 1985 Third World Conference on Women in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]]. The idea has been developed in the [[United Nations]] development community.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jeanmonnetprogram.org/papers/00/000201-03.html |title=II. The Origins of Gender Mainstreaming in the EU |website=Harvard Law School |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010708124202/http://www.jeanmonnetprogram.org/papers/00/000201-03.html |archive-date=July 8, 2001}}</ref> Gender mainstreaming "involves ensuring that gender perspectives and attention to the goal of gender equality are central to all activities".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/gendermainstreaming.htm|title=Gender Mainstreaming|website=UN Women|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=20 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920124801/http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/gendermainstreaming.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the Council of Europe definition: "Gender mainstreaming is the (re)organization, improvement, development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels and at all stages, by the actors normally involved in policy-making."<ref name="coe.int"/>

An integrated gender mainstreaming approach is "the attempt to form alliances and common platforms that bring together the power of faith and gender-equality aspirations to advance human rights."<ref name="unfpa.org3">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/publications/gender-heart-icpd|title=Gender at the Heart of ICPD: The UNFPA Strategic Framework on Gender Mainstreaming and Women's Empowerment|website=United Nations Population Fund|date=2011|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=17 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817033015/http://www.unfpa.org/publications/gender-heart-icpd|url-status=live}}</ref> For example, "in Azerbaijan, [[UNFPA]] conducted a study on gender equality by comparing the text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women with some widely recognized Islamic references and resources. The results reflect the parallels between the Convention and many tenets of Islamic scripture and practice. The study showcased specific issues, including VAW, child marriage, respect for the dignity of women, and equality in the economic and political participation of women. The study was later used to produce training materials geared towards sensitizing religious leaders."<ref name="unfpa.org3"/>