Editing Genetic engineering (section)

=== Medicine ===

Genetic engineering has many applications to medicine that include the manufacturing of drugs, creation of [[Model organism|model animals]] that mimic human conditions and [[gene therapy]]. One of the earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-produce human insulin in bacteria.<ref name="GoeddelKleidBolivarHeynekerYansuraCreaHiroseKraszewskiItakuraRiggs1979" /> This application has now been applied to human [[growth hormone]]s, [[Follicle-stimulating hormone|follicle stimulating hormones]] (for treating infertility), [[Albumin human|human albumin]], [[monoclonal antibodies]], [[antihemophilic factor]]s, [[vaccine]]s and many other drugs.<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=gR8cWf2-UY4C}}|title=The hope, hype & reality of genetic engineering: remarkable stories from agriculture, industry, medicine, and the environment|last=Avise|first=John C.| name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-516950-8|page=22}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=10 December 2012|title=Engineering algae to make complex anti-cancer 'designer' drug|url=http://phys.org/news/2012-12-algae-complex-anti-cancer-drug.html|work=PhysOrg|access-date=15 April 2013}}</ref> Mouse [[Hybridoma technology|hybridomas]], cells fused together to create [[monoclonal antibodies]], have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roque AC, Lowe CR, Taipa MA | title = Antibodies and genetically engineered related molecules: production and purification | journal = Biotechnology Progress | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 639–54 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15176864 | doi = 10.1021/bp030070k | s2cid = 23142893 }}</ref> [[Genetically engineered virus]]es are being developed that can still confer immunity, but lack the [[Infectious Disease|infectious]] [[DNA sequence|sequences]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rodriguez LL, Grubman MJ | title = Foot and mouth disease virus vaccines | journal = Vaccine | volume = 27 | pages = D90-4 | date = November 2009 | issue = Suppl 4 | pmid = 19837296 | doi = 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.08.039 }}</ref>

Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases. [[Genetically modified mouse|Genetically modified mice]] are the most common genetically engineered animal model.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geneticsandsociety.org/article.php?id=386|title=Background: Cloned and Genetically Modified Animals|date=14 April 2005|publisher=Center for Genetics and Society|access-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123110939/http://geneticsandsociety.org/article.php?id=386|archive-date=23 November 2016}}</ref> They have been used to study and model cancer (the [[oncomouse]]), obesity, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging and Parkinson disease.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genome.gov/12514551|title=Knockout Mice|year=2009|publisher=Nation Human Genome Research Institute}}</ref> Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models. 

Gene therapy is the [[Human genetic engineering|genetic engineering of humans]], generally by replacing defective genes with effective ones. [[Clinical research]] using [[Somatic (biology)|somatic]] gene therapy has been conducted with several diseases, including [[X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency|X-linked SCID]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fischer A, Hacein-Bey-Abina S, Cavazzana-Calvo M | title = 20 years of gene therapy for SCID | journal = Nature Immunology | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 457–60 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20485269 | doi = 10.1038/ni0610-457 | s2cid = 11300348 }}</ref> [[chronic lymphocytic leukemia]] (CLL),<ref name="Porter">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/news.2011.472 |title=Cell therapy fights leukaemia |year=2011 |last1=Ledford |first1=Heidi | name-list-style = vanc |journal=Nature }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brentjens RJ, Davila ML, Riviere I, Park J, Wang X, Cowell LG, Bartido S, Stefanski J, Taylor C, Olszewska M, Borquez-Ojeda O, Qu J, Wasielewska T, He Q, Bernal Y, Rijo IV, Hedvat C, Kobos R, Curran K, Steinherz P, Jurcic J, Rosenblat T, Maslak P, Frattini M, Sadelain M | display-authors = 6 | title = CD19-targeted T cells rapidly induce molecular remissions in adults with chemotherapy-refractory acute lymphoblastic leukemia | journal = Science Translational Medicine | volume = 5 | issue = 177 | pages = 177ra38 | date = March 2013 | pmid = 23515080 | pmc = 3742551 | doi = 10.1126/scitranslmed.3005930 }}</ref> and [[Parkinson's disease]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = LeWitt PA, Rezai AR, Leehey MA, Ojemann SG, Flaherty AW, Eskandar EN, Kostyk SK, Thomas K, Sarkar A, Siddiqui MS, Tatter SB, Schwalb JM, Poston KL, Henderson JM, Kurlan RM, Richard IH, Van Meter L, Sapan CV, During MJ, Kaplitt MG, Feigin A | display-authors = 6 | title = AAV2-GAD gene therapy for advanced Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, sham-surgery controlled, randomised trial | journal = The Lancet. Neurology | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 309–19 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21419704 | doi = 10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70039-4 | s2cid = 37154043 }}</ref> In 2012, [[Alipogene tiparvovec]] became the first gene therapy treatment to be approved for clinical use.<ref name="Gallagher">{{Cite news|date=2012-11-02|title=Gene therapy: Glybera approved by European Commission|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-20179561|access-date=2023-03-30}}</ref><ref name="Richards2012">{{cite web|last=Richards|first=Sabrina| name-list-style = vanc |title=Gene Therapy Arrives in Europe|url=http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/33166/title/Gene-Therapy-Arrives-in-Europe/|publisher=The Scientist|access-date=16 November 2012}}</ref> In 2015 a virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, [[epidermolysis bullosa]], in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2017/11/08/562647401/genetically-altered-skin-saves-a-boy-dying-of-a-rare-disease?sc=tw|title=Genetically Altered Skin Saves A Boy Dying of a Rare Disease|work=NPR.org|access-date=2017-11-15|language=en}}</ref>

[[Germline]] gene therapy would result in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cioms.ch/frame_1990_texts_of_guidelines.htm |title=1990 The Declaration of Inuyama |date=5 August 2001 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010805085535/http://www.cioms.ch/frame_1990_texts_of_guidelines.htm |archive-date=5 August 2001 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith KR, Chan S, Harris J | title = Human germline genetic modification: scientific and bioethical perspectives | journal = Archives of Medical Research | volume = 43 | issue = 7 | pages = 491–513 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 23072719 | doi = 10.1016/j.arcmed.2012.09.003 }}</ref> In 2015, CRISPR was used to edit the DNA of non-viable [[human embryos]],<ref name="NYT-20150423">{{cite news |last=Kolata |first=Gina | name-list-style = vanc |title=Chinese Scientists Edit Genes of Human Embryos, Raising Concerns |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/24/health/chinese-scientists-edit-genes-of-human-embryos-raising-concerns.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/24/health/chinese-scientists-edit-genes-of-human-embryos-raising-concerns.html |archive-date=2022-01-02 |url-access=limited |url-status=live |date=23 April 2015 |work=The New York Times |access-date=24 April 2015 }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="PC-20150418">{{cite journal | vauthors = Liang P, Xu Y, Zhang X, Ding C, Huang R, Zhang Z, Lv J, Xie X, Chen Y, Li Y, Sun Y, Bai Y, Songyang Z, Ma W, Zhou C, Huang J | display-authors = 6 | title = CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in human tripronuclear zygotes | journal = Protein & Cell | volume = 6 | issue = 5 | pages = 363–372 | date = May 2015 | pmid = 25894090 | pmc = 4417674 | doi = 10.1007/s13238-015-0153-5 }}</ref> leading scientists of major world academies to call for a moratorium on inheritable human genome edits.<ref name="NYT-20151203-nw">{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas | name-list-style = vanc |author-link=Nicholas Wade |title=Scientists Place Moratorium on Edits to Human Genome That Could Be Inherited |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/04/science/crispr-cas9-human-genome-editing-moratorium.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/04/science/crispr-cas9-human-genome-editing-moratorium.html |archive-date=2022-01-02 |url-access=limited |url-status=live |date=3 December 2015 |work=The New York Times |access-date=3 December 2015 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Ethics of Gene Therapy|first=Emilie R. |last=Bergeson| name-list-style = vanc |year=1997|url=http://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc431/students/bergeson.htm}}</ref> The distinction between cure and enhancement can also be difficult to establish.<ref>{{cite web|first=Kathi E. |last=Hanna| name-list-style = vanc |url=http://www.genome.gov/10004767|publisher=National Human Genome Research Institute|title=Genetic Enhancement}}</ref> In November 2018, [[He Jiankui]] announced that he had [[Genome editing|edited the genomes]] of two human embryos, to attempt to disable the ''[[CCR5]]'' gene, which codes for a receptor that [[HIV]] uses to enter cells. The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Begley |first1=Sharon | name-list-style = vanc |title=Amid uproar, Chinese scientist defends creating gene-edited babies – STAT |url=https://www.statnews.com/2018/11/28/chinese-scientist-defends-creating-gene-edited-babies/ |work=STAT |date=28 November 2018}}</ref> Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries. Scientists that do this type of research will often let embryos grow for a few days without allowing it to develop into a baby.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Emily |title=Diagnostic Value of Spiral CT Chest Enhanced Scan |journal=Journal of Clinical and Nursing Research |date=July 31, 2020 |url=http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:h6ILNa11QgIJ:scholar.google.com/+%E2%80%8BLi,+E.+(2020).+Risks+of+CRISPR+Gene+Editing+and+An+Answer+to+Them.+%E2%80%8BJournal+of+Clinical+and+Nursing+Research,%E2%80%8B+%E2%80%8B4(%E2%80%8B+4).&hl=en&as_sdt=0,21}}</ref>

Researchers are altering the genome of pigs to induce the growth of human organs, with the aim of increasing the success of [[Xenotransplantation|pig to human organ transplantation]].<ref name="Medical News Today">{{cite news|date=21 September 2003|title=GM pigs best bet for organ transplant|work=Medical News Today|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/4344.php|access-date=9 July 2010|archive-date=10 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510121726/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/4344.php}}</ref> Scientists are creating "gene drives", changing the genomes of mosquitoes to make them immune to malaria, and then looking to spread the genetically altered mosquitoes throughout the mosquito population in the hopes of eliminating the disease.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/27/us/2015-11-27-us-animal-gene-editing.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/27/us/2015-11-27-us-animal-gene-editing.html |archive-date=2022-01-02 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|title=Open Season Is Seen in Gene Editing of Animals|last=Harmon|first=Amy| name-list-style = vanc |date=2015-11-26|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-09-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref>