Editing Grammatical number (section)

===Paucal===
The paucal number represents 'a few', a small inexactly numbered group of items. For example, in [[Siwai language|Motuna]]:<ref>{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |last=Onishi |first=Masayuki |year=1994 |title=A Grammar of Motuna (Bougainville, Papua New Guinea) |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/12476 |pages=11, 72–73 |publisher=Australian National University |access-date=2024-01-27 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211105936/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/12476/1/Onishi%20M%20Thesis%201994.pdf |archive-date=2023-12-11 }}</ref>

*{{lang|siw|mahkata}} - "dog" (singular)
*{{lang|siw|mahkata'''karo'''}} - "two dogs" (dual)
*{{lang|siw|mahkata'''naa'''}} - "a few dogs" (paucal)
*{{lang|siw|mahkata'''ngung'''}} - "dogs" (plural)

Almost all languages with a paucal also have a dual.<ref name="Corbett2017">{{cite journal |author-last1=Corbett |author-first1=Greville G. |author-link1=Greville G Corbett |author-last2=Fedden |author-first2=Sebastian |author-last3=Finkel |author-first3=Raphael |author-link3=Raphael Finkel |date=2017 |title=Single Versus Concurrent Systems: Nominal Classification in Mian |url=https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=cs_facpub |journal=Linguistic Typology |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=209–260 [246] |access-date=2024-03-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427075820/https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=cs_facpub |archive-date=2019-04-27 |doi=10.1515/lingty-2017-0006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |author-link=Greville G Corbett |year=2004 |orig-year=2000 |title=Number |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=23 |isbn=0-511-01591-7 }}</ref> However, this is not universal. Nouns in [[Mocoví language|Mocoví]] only have singular, paucal, and plural.<ref name="Corbett2017"/><ref name="Grondona1998">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |last=Grondona |first=Verónica María |year=1998 |title=A Grammar of Mocoví |url=https://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/tese%3Agrondona-1998/grondona_1998_mocovi.pdf |pages=11, 51–62 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh |access-date=2024-03-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014014503/https://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/tese%3Agrondona-1998/grondona_1998_mocovi.pdf |archive-date=2023-10-14 }}</ref> On the other hand, the pronouns in [[Mussau-Emira language|Mussau]]<ref name="Ross2011">{{cite book |last=Ross |first=Malcolm |author-link=Malcolm Ross (linguist) |editor-last1=Lynch |editor-first1=John |editor-link1=John Lynch (linguist) |editor-last2=Ross |editor-first2=Malcolm |editor-link2=Malcolm Ross (linguist) |editor-last3=Crowley |editor-first3=Terry |editor-link3=Terry Crowley (linguist) |year=2011 |orig-year=2002 |title=The Oceanic Languages |series=Routledge Language Family Series |chapter=Mussau |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=148–166 [152] |isbn=978-0-203-82038-4}}</ref><ref name="Brownie2007">{{cite book |last1=Brownie |first1=John |last2=Brownie |first2=Marjo |year=2007 |title=Mussau Grammar Essentials |series=Data Papers on Papua New Guinea Languages, vol. 52 |url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/13/30/81/13308188451694821564901351327647219855/MussauGrammarEssentials.pdf |url-status=live |location=Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea |publisher=SIL-PNG Academic Publications |pages=30–35 |access-date=2024-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611092229/https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/13/30/81/13308188451694821564901351327647219855/MussauGrammarEssentials.pdf |archive-date=2022-06-11 |isbn=978-9980-0-3223-2 }}</ref> and [[Lihir language|Lihir]]<ref name="Corbett2000p25">{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |author-link=Greville G Corbett |year=2004 |orig-year=2000 |title=Number |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=25 |isbn=0-511-01591-7 }}</ref> have dual, trial, and paucal.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Lihir pronouns
|-
!
! Singular
! Dual
! Trial
! Paucal
! Plural
|-
! First (exc.)
| {{lang|lih|yo}}
| {{lang|lih|gel}}
| {{lang|lih|getol}}
| {{lang|lih|gehet}}
| {{lang|lih|ge}}
|-
! First (inc.)
| -
| {{lang|lih|kito}}
| {{lang|lih|kitol}}
| {{lang|lih|kitahet}}
| {{lang|lih|giet}}
|-
! Second
| {{lang|lih|wa}}
| {{lang|lih|gol}}
| {{lang|lih|gotol}}
| {{lang|lih|gohet}}
| {{lang|lih|go}}
|-
! Third
| {{lang|lih|e}}
| {{lang|lih|dul}}
| {{lang|lih|dietol}}
| {{lang|lih|diehet}}
| {{lang|lih|die}}
|}

The lower bound of the paucal is usually defined by what other number categories exist in the language. In singular/paucal/plural paradigms, use of the paucal begins at two, but with the addition of the dual, the paucal begins at three. There is usually no exact upper bound on how many paucal refers to, and its approximate range depends on both language and context.<ref>{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |author-link=Greville G Corbett |year=2004 |orig-year=2000 |title=Number |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=22–23 |isbn=0-511-01591-7 }}</ref> It has been recorded as going up to about 5 in [[Warndarrang language|Warndarrang]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Heath |first=Jeffrey |author-link=Jeffrey Heath |year=1980 |title=Basic Materials in Warndarang: Grammar, Texts and Dictionary |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/159464817.pdf |series=Pacific Linguistics, Series B - No. 72 |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian National University |pages=22–23 |isbn=0-85883-219-4 |access-date=2024-01-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130223011/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/159464817.pdf |archive-date=2024-01-30 }}</ref> about 6 in [[Baiso language|Baiso]],<ref name="Corbett2000p22"/> 10 in Arabic,<ref>{{cite book |last=Ojeda |first=Almerindo E. |editor-last1=Barker |editor-first1=Chris |editor-link1=Chris Barker (linguist) |editor-last2=Dowty |editor-first2=David |editor-link2=David Dowty |year=1992 |title=SALT II: Proceedings from the Second Conference on Semantics and Linguistic Theory; Held at the Ohio State University, May 1-3, 1992 |chapter=The Semantics of Number in Arabic |series=Working Papers in Linguistics No. 40 |location=Columbus |publisher=The Ohio State University Department of Linguistics |pages=303–326 [317] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED352828/page/n315/mode/2up }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Jaradat |first=Abdulazeez |date=2023 |title=When a Dual Marker Acts as a Paucal Marker: The Case of the Dual ''-e:n'' in Northern Rural Jordanian Arabic |journal=Languages |volume=8 |issue=3 |article-number=183 |pages=3, 12 |doi=10.3390/languages8030183 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and about 10 or 15 in [[Murrinh-patha language|Murrinh-patha]].<ref name="Corbett2000p25"/> In [[Manam language|Manam]], the primary factor for using the paucal is not a specific number range, but the referents forming a single group; although the paucal is most common between 3 and 5, it has been used with more than 20.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lichtenberk |first=Frantisek |year=1983 |title=A Grammar of Manam |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/b58a6fb6-1de4-44aa-9d9b-dd873b736f16/content |series=Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication No. 18 |location=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |page=109 |isbn=0-8248-0764-2 |access-date=2024-01-31 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131055218/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/b58a6fb6-1de4-44aa-9d9b-dd873b736f16/content |archive-date=2024-01-31 }}</ref> In [[Paamese language|Paamese]], a major factor is relative group size compared to the plural, such that even though the paucal generally means 12 or fewer, a group of 2,000 people may be referred to in the paucal when contrasted with a group of 100,000 referred to in the plural.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crowley |first=Terry |author-link=Terry Crowley (linguist) |year=1982 |title=The Paamese language of Vanuatu |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/160608403.pdf |series=Pacific Linguistics, Series B - No. 87 |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian National University |pages=1, 81 |isbn=0-85883-279-8 |doi=10.15144/PL-B87 |access-date=2024-01-31 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721133749/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/160608403.pdf |archive-date=2021-07-21 }}</ref>

Much like the dual, it is crosslinguistically variable which words and parts of speech may be marked with the paucal. Baiso has the paucal only for nouns and not pronouns,<ref name="Corbett2000p22"/> whereas [[Yimas language|Yimas]] has the paucal only for pronouns and not nouns.<ref name="Corbett2000p92">{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |author-link=Greville G Corbett |year=2004 |orig-year=2000 |title=Number |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=92 |isbn=0-511-01591-7 }}</ref> In [[Meriam language|Meryam Mir]], the paucal is mostly marked on the verbs.<ref>{{cite thesis |degree=MA |last=Piper |first=Nick |year=1989 |title=A Sketch Grammar of Meryam Mir |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/110341/2/b17380704-Piper_N.pdf |pages=2, 81–83, 88, 99, 104–105, 123, 125–128, 136, 138–139 |publisher=Australian National University |access-date=2024-02-01 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214182625/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/110341/2/b17380704-Piper_N.pdf |archive-date=2023-02-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |last=Jones |first=Stephen |editor-last1=Butt |editor-first1=Miriam |editor-link1=Miriam Butt |editor-last2=King |editor-first2=Tracy Holloway |title=Number in Meryam Mir |conference=Lexical Functional Grammar (LGF) '15 Conference |series=CSLI Publications |pages=103–123 |year=2015 |location=Tokyo, Japan |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/cslipublications/cslipublications/LFG/20/papers/lfg15jones.pdf |access-date=2024-02-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726195029/https://web.stanford.edu/group/cslipublications/cslipublications/LFG/20/papers/lfg15jones.pdf |archive-date=2021-07-26 }}</ref> [[Avar language|Avar]] has the paucal for only about 90 specific nouns, including brush, spade, snake, and daughter-in-law (the only kin term that can take the paucal in Avar).<ref>{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |author-link=Greville G Corbett |year=2004 |orig-year=2000 |title=Number |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=96–98 |isbn=0-511-01591-7 }}</ref> [[Bunun language|Takivatan Bunun]] has a paucal only in its distal demonstratives used in reference to people.<ref>{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |last=De Busser |first=Rik L.J. |year=2009 |title=Towards a Grammar of Takivatan Bunun: Selected Topics |url=https://hcommons.org/deposits/objects/hc:11378/datastreams/CONTENT/content |pages=454, 458–459 |publisher=La Trobe University |access-date=2024-02-01 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201064520/https://hcommons.org/deposits/objects/hc:11378/datastreams/CONTENT/content |archive-date=2024-02-01 }}</ref>

It is common for former trials to evolve in meaning to become paucals, and many Austronesian languages have paucal markers that are etymologically derived from the numeral three, indicating the old usage.<ref>{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |author-link=Greville G Corbett |year=2004 |orig-year=2000 |title=Number |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=21, 25, 267–268 |isbn=0-511-01591-7 }}</ref><ref name="Cysouw2003p199">{{cite book |last=Cysouw |first=Michael |year=2009 |orig-year=2003 |title=The Paradigmatic Structure of Person Marking |series=Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=199–203, 297 |isbn=978-0-19-925412-5}}</ref> It is less common for duals to evolve into paucals,<ref>{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |author-link=Greville G Corbett |year=2004 |orig-year=2000 |title=Number |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=25n20 |isbn=0-511-01591-7 }}</ref> but this has been observed in some dialects of Arabic.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brustad |first=Kristen E. |year=2000 |title=The Syntax of Spoken Arabic: A Comparative Study of Moroccan, Egyptian, Syrian, and Kuwaiti Dialects |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Georgetown University Press |pages=45–46 |isbn=0-87840-789-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Jaradat |first=Abdulazeez |date=2023 |title=When a Dual Marker Acts as a Paucal Marker: The Case of the Dual ''-e:n'' in Northern Rural Jordanian Arabic |journal=Languages |volume=8 |issue=3 |article-number=183 |doi=10.3390/languages8030183 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Paucals that are etymologically trials are sometimes incorrectly described as being trials.{{efn|Sometimes this takes the form of neglecting to analyze the possible uses of the trial/paucal, but other times it takes the form of a published grammar describing a language as having a trial but then describing that "trial" as functioning like a paucal.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cysouw |first=Michael |year=2009 |orig-year=2003 |title=The Paradigmatic Structure of Person Marking |series=Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=199–200 |isbn=978-0-19-925412-5}}</ref> Examples of the latter include works on [[Ambai language|Ambai]]<ref name="Silzer1983">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |last=Silzer |first=Peter James |year=1983 |title=Ambai: An Austronesian Language of Irian Jaya, Indonesia |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/110277/2/b11579870-SILZER,%20P.J..pdf |page=120 |publisher=Australian National University |access-date=2023-08-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518162617/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/110277/2/b11579870-SILZER,%20P.J..pdf |archive-date=2023-05-18 }}</ref> and [[Sakao language|Sakao]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Guy |first=J.B.M. |year=1974 |title=A Grammar of the Northern Dialect of Sakao |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/160608384.pdf |series=Pacific Linguistics, Series B - no. 33 |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian National University |pages=8, 28–29, 42 |access-date=2024-02-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202060608/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/160608384.pdf |archive-date=2024-02-02 |isbn=0-858-83-104-X |doi=10.15144/PL-B33 }}</ref>}} For example, trial pronouns were once described as being found in all the Kiwaian languages,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Capell |first=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Capell |date=1962 |title=Oceanic Linguistics Today |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2739878 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=371–428 [374] |doi=10.1086/200305 |jstor=2739878 |s2cid=144609787 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wurm |first=S. A. |author-link=Stephen Wurm |editor-last=Franklin |editor-first=Karl |year=1973 |chapter=The Kiwaian Language Family |title=The Linguistic Situation in the Gulf District and Adjacent Areas, Papua New Guinea |series=Pacific Linguistics: Series C - no. 26 |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian National University |pages=217–260 [227] |isbn=0-85883-100-7 }}</ref> but it is now recognized that many actually have a paucal instead.{{efn|While the closely related Kiwaian languages of [[Kiwai language|Kope]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schulz |first1=Hanna |last2=Petterson |first2=Robert |year=2022 |title=Studies in Kope |series=Data Papers on Papua New Guinea Languages, vol. 64 |url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/65/71/62/6571622541641722806568811060516711094/Kope_DP_64___final.pdf |url-status=live |location=Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea |publisher=SIL-PNG Academic Publications |pages=20–21, 23, 30, 50, 56–57, 59–63, 66, 69 |access-date=2024-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202011714/https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/65/71/62/6571622541641722806568811060516711094/Kope_DP_64___final.pdf |archive-date=2024-02-02 |id={{Listed Invalid ISBN|9980-4639-2}} }}</ref> and Urama<ref>{{cite book |author-last1=Brown |author-first1=Jason |author-last2=Muir |author-first2=Alex |author-last3=Craig |author-first3=Kimberley |author-last4=Anea |author-first4=Karika |year=2016 |title=A Short Grammar of Urama |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/111328/3/BrownEtAl-2016-UramaGrammar.pdf |series=Asia-Pacific Linguistics 32 |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian National University |pages=20, 25–27 |isbn=978-1-922185-22-8 |access-date=2024-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107232500/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/111328/3/BrownEtAl-2016-UramaGrammar.pdf |archive-date=2024-01-07 }}</ref> still reportedly have a trial, [[Bamu language|Bamu]], [[Waboda language|Waboda]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schulz |first1=Hanna |last2=Petterson |first2=Robert |year=2022 |title=Studies in Kope |series=Data Papers on Papua New Guinea Languages, vol. 64 |url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/65/71/62/6571622541641722806568811060516711094/Kope_DP_64___final.pdf |url-status=live |location=Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea |publisher=SIL-PNG Academic Publications |page=60 |access-date=2024-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202011714/https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/65/71/62/6571622541641722806568811060516711094/Kope_DP_64___final.pdf |archive-date=2024-02-02 |id={{Listed Invalid ISBN|9980-4639-2}} }}</ref> and [[Kerewo language|Kerewo]]<ref>{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |last=Di Rosa |first=Dario |year=2018 |title=Frustrated Modernity: Kerewo Histories and Historical Consciousness, Gulf Province, Papua New Guinea |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/162631283.pdf |page=viii |publisher=Australian National University |access-date=2024-02-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202035337/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/162631283.pdf |archive-date=2024-02-02 }}</ref> all have a paucal.}} Linguist Michael Cysouw has suggested that ''most'' languages reported to have trials in fact have mislabelled paucals, and that true trials are very rare.<ref name="Cysouw2003p199"/> On the other hand, [[Luise Hercus]] stated in her published grammar of Arabana that the language's trial (which can be marked on nouns) is a true trial which cannot act as a paucal.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hercus |first=Luise A. |author-link=Luise Hercus |year=1994 |title=A Grammar of the Arabana-Wangkangurru Language, Lake Eyre Basin, South Australia |series=Pacific Linguistics: Series C - no. 128 |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian National University |page=64 |isbn=0-85883-425-1}}</ref> Similar things have been said about trial pronouns in Larike<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Laidig |first1=Wyn D. |last2=Laidig |first2=Carol J. |date=1990 |title=Larike Pronouns: Duals and Trials in a Central Moluccan Language |series=A Special Issue on Western Austronesian Languages |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=87–109 [92] |doi=10.2307/3623187|jstor=3623187 }}</ref> and [[Aneityum language|Anejom̃]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lynch |first=John |author-link=John Lynch (linguist) |year=2000 |title=A Grammar of Anejom̃ |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/146679/1/PL-507.pdf |series=Pacific Linguistics 507 |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian National University |page=36n1 |access-date=2024-02-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202063457/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/146679/1/PL-507.pdf |archive-date=2024-02-02 |isbn=0-85883-484-7 |doi=10.15144/PL-507 }}</ref>

[[Russian language|Russian]] has what has variably been called paucal numerals,<ref>{{cite book |last=Pesetsky |first=David |author-link=David Pesetsky |year=2013 |title=Russian Case Morphology and the Syntactic Categories |series=Linguistic Inquiry Monographs 66 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=The MIT Press |page=1 |isbn=978-0-262-01972-9 }}</ref> the count form,<ref>{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |author-link=Greville G Corbett |year=2004 |orig-year=2000 |title=Number |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=270 |isbn=0-511-01591-7 }}</ref>{{efn|The term "count form" has also been used to describe similar constructions in [[Mongondow language|Mongondow]], [[Lolak language|Lolak]], and [[Ponosakan language|Ponosakan]]. In these languages, pronouns take on a unique form when following a numeral. Mongondow and Lolak also have singular, dual, trial, and plural pronoun forms, while Ponosakan lacks a trial. This means in Mongondow and Lolak, the count form is for a specific given number larger than three, and in Ponosakan it is for a number larger than two. Unlike Russian nouns, the use of these forms does not end above a certain number.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lobel |first=Jason William |date=2011 |title=Pronominal Number in Mongondow-Gorontalo |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=543–550 |doi=10.1353/ol.2011.0029|doi-access=free }}</ref>}} the adnumerative,<ref name="Corbett2012">{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |author-link=Greville G Corbett |year=2012 |title=Features |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=209–210 |isbn=978-1-107-02623-0 }}</ref> or the genitive of quantification.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Franks |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Franks |date=1994 |title=Parametric Properties of Numeral Phrases in Slavic |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00992929 |journal=Natural Language & Linguistic Theory |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=597–674 |doi=10.1007/BF00992929 |s2cid=170548920 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> When a noun in the nominative case has a numeral added to quantify it, the noun becomes genitive singular with 2, 3, or 4, but genitive plural with 5 or above.{{efn|This also occurs to nouns in the accusative case, but only if they are inanimate, and it furthermore also occurs with the numerals half, one-and-a-half, sometimes a quarter, and any higher compound numerals ending in 2, 3, or 4.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pesetsky |first=David |author-link=David Pesetsky |year=2013 |title=Russian Case Morphology and the Syntactic Categories |series=Linguistic Inquiry Monographs 66 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=The MIT Press |pages=1, 133n2, 136n1 |isbn=978-0-262-01972-9 }}</ref> A very small number of nouns may take on a slightly different form where stress is changed to a different syllable; these nouns include {{lang|ru|час}} (hour), {{lang|ru|шар}} (ball), and {{lang|ru|след}} (footprint).<ref name="Corbett2012"/> Linguists have debated whether the form is actually genitive, or whether it is simply identical in form to the genitive in almost all cases but actually constituting a separate noun case or paucal conjugation.<ref name="Corbett2012"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stepanov |first1=Arthur |last2=Stateva |first2=Penka |date=2018 |title=Countability, Agreement and the Loss of the Dual in Russian |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/97F287A2BFF4BE053B448CE637238CCD/S0022226718000130a.pdf/countability_agreement_and_the_loss_of_the_dual_in_russian.pdf |journal=Journal of Linguistics |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=779–821 [781–782] |doi=10.1017/S0022226718000130 |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503151036/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/97F287A2BFF4BE053B448CE637238CCD/S0022226718000130a.pdf/countability_agreement_and_the_loss_of_the_dual_in_russian.pdf |archive-date=2022-05-03 }}</ref>}} Many linguists have described these as paucal constructions.<ref>See:
*{{cite book |last1=Bailyn |first1=John F. |last2=Nevins |first2=Andrew |editor-last1=Bachrach |editor-first1=Asaf |editor-last2=Nevins |editor-first2=Andrew |year=2008 |title=Inflectional Identity |chapter=Russian Genitive Plurals are Impostors |series=Oxford Studies in Theoretical Linguistics |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=237–270 [263–268] |isbn=978-0-19-921925-4 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Franks |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Franks |date=1994 |title=Parametric Properties of Numeral Phrases in Slavic |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00992929 |journal=Natural Language & Linguistic Theory |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=597–674 |doi=10.1007/BF00992929 |s2cid=170548920 |url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Madariaga |first1=Nerea |last2=Igartua |first2=Iván |date=2017 |title=Idiosyncratic (Dis)agreement Patterns: The Structure and Diachrony of Russian Paucal Subjects |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00806765.2017.1390922 |journal=Scando-Slavica |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=99–132 |doi=10.1080/00806765.2017.1390922 |s2cid=149279486 |url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite book |last=Pesetsky |first=David |author-link=David Pesetsky |year=2013 |title=Russian Case Morphology and the Syntactic Categories |series=Linguistic Inquiry Monographs 66 |location= Cambridge, MA |publisher=The MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-01972-9 }}  
</ref> However, some have disagreed on the grounds that a Russian noun cannot be declined to stand by itself and mean anywhere between 2 and 4.<ref>See:
*{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |author-link=Greville G Corbett |year=2004 |orig-year=2000 |title=Number |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=22n18 |isbn=0-511-01591-7 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Stepanov |first1=Arthur |last2=Stateva |first2=Penka |date=2018 |title=Countability, Agreement and the Loss of the Dual in Russian |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/97F287A2BFF4BE053B448CE637238CCD/S0022226718000130a.pdf/countability_agreement_and_the_loss_of_the_dual_in_russian.pdf |journal=Journal of Linguistics |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=779–821 [781–782] |doi=10.1017/S0022226718000130 |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503151036/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/97F287A2BFF4BE053B448CE637238CCD/S0022226718000130a.pdf/countability_agreement_and_the_loss_of_the_dual_in_russian.pdf |archive-date=2022-05-03 }}
</ref> Similar constructions can be found in other [[Slavic languages]], including [[Polish language|Polish]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lyskawa |first=Paulina |date=2020 |title=The Structure of Polish Numerically-Quantified Expressions |url=https://www.glossa-journal.org/article/id/5279/ |journal=Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=art. 31, 1-37 |doi=10.5334/gjgl.880 |doi-access=free |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925025543/https://www.glossa-journal.org/article/id/5279/ |archive-date=2023-09-25 }}</ref> [[Serbo-Croatian]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Despić |first=Miloje |editor-last=Podobryaev |editor-first=Alexander |year=2013 |title=Annual Workshop on Formal Approaches to Slavic Linguistics: The Second MIT Meeting 2011 |chapter=A Note on Paucal, Agreement and Case |series=Michigan Slavic Materials, 58 |location=Ann Arbor |publisher=Michigan Slavic Publications |pages=57–71 |isbn=978-0-936534-09-1 }}</ref> and [[Slovene language|Slovene]]. Because Slovene also has a regular dual, there is a four-way distinction of nouns being singular with 1, dual with 2, plural with 3 or 4, and genitive plural with 5 or more.<ref>{{cite book |last=Derbyshire |first=William W. |year=1993 |title=A Basic Reference Grammar of Slovene |location=Columbus, OH |publisher=Slavica Publishers |page=57 |isbn=0-89357-236-5 }}</ref>