Editing Haber process (section)

=== Iron-based catalysts ===
The iron catalyst is obtained from finely ground iron powder, which is usually obtained by reduction of high-purity [[magnetite]] (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>). The pulverized iron is oxidized to give magnetite or [[wüstite]] (FeO, ferrous oxide) particles of a specific size. The magnetite (or wüstite) particles are then partially reduced, removing some of the [[oxygen]]. The resulting catalyst particles consist of a core of magnetite, encased in a shell of [[wüstite]], which in turn is surrounded by an outer shell of metallic iron. The catalyst maintains most of its bulk volume during the reduction, resulting in a highly porous high-surface-area material, which enhances its catalytic effectiveness. Minor components include [[Calcium oxide|calcium]] and [[aluminium oxide]]s, which support the iron catalyst and help it maintain its surface area. These oxides of Ca, Al, K, and Si are unreactive to reduction by hydrogen.<ref name="Appl" />

The production of the catalyst requires a particular melting process in which used [[raw material]]s must be free of [[Catalyst poisoning|catalyst poisons]] and the promoter aggregates must be evenly distributed in the magnetite melt. Rapid cooling of the magnetite, which has an initial temperature of about 3500&nbsp;°C, produces the desired precursor. Unfortunately, the rapid cooling ultimately forms a catalyst of reduced abrasion resistance. Despite this disadvantage, the method of rapid cooling is often employed.<ref name="Appl" />

The reduction of the precursor magnetite to α-iron is carried out directly in the production plant with [[synthesis gas]]. The reduction of the magnetite proceeds via the formation of [[wüstite]] (FeO) so that particles with a core of magnetite become surrounded by a shell of wüstite. The further reduction of magnetite and wüstite leads to the formation of α-iron, which forms together with the promoters the outer shell.<ref name="max">{{Ullmann|author=Max Appl|title=Ammonia|year=2006|doi=10.1002/14356007.a02_143.pub2}}</ref> The involved processes are complex and depend on the reduction temperature: At lower temperatures, wüstite [[disproportionates]] into an iron phase and a magnetite phase; at higher temperatures, the reduction of the wüstite and magnetite to iron dominates.<ref name="jozwiak">{{Cite journal |last1=Jozwiak |first1=W. K. |last2=Kaczmarek |first2=E. |year=2007 |title=Reduction behavior of iron oxides in hydrogen and carbon monoxide atmospheres |journal=Applied Catalysis A: General |volume=326 |issue=1 |pages=17–27 |doi=10.1016/j.apcata.2007.03.021|bibcode=2007AppCA.326...17J }}</ref>

The α-iron forms primary [[crystallite]]s with a diameter of about 30 nanometers. These crystallites form a bimodal pore system with pore diameters of about 10 nanometers (produced by the reduction of the magnetite phase) and of 25 to 50 nanometers (produced by the reduction of the wüstite phase).<ref name="max" /> With the exception of [[cobalt oxide]], the promoters are not reduced.

During the reduction of the iron oxide with synthesis gas, water vapor is formed. This water vapor must be considered for high catalyst quality as contact with the finely divided iron would lead to premature aging of the catalyst through [[Recrystallization (metallurgy)|recrystallization]], especially in conjunction with high temperatures. The [[vapor pressure]] of the water in the gas mixture produced during catalyst formation is thus kept as low as possible, target values are below 3 gm<sup>−3</sup>. For this reason, the reduction is carried out at high gas exchange, low pressure, and low temperatures. The [[Exothermic reaction|exothermic]] nature of the ammonia formation ensures a gradual increase in temperature.<ref name="Appl" />

The reduction of fresh, fully oxidized catalyst or precursor to full production capacity takes four to ten days.<ref name="Appl" /> The wüstite phase is reduced faster and at lower temperatures than the [[magnetite]] phase (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>). After detailed kinetic, microscopic, and [[X-ray spectroscopy|X-ray spectroscopic]] investigations it was shown that wüstite reacts first to metallic iron. This leads to a gradient of iron(II) ions, whereby these diffuse from the magnetite through the wüstite to the particle surface and precipitate there as iron nuclei. A high-activity novel catalyst based on this phenomenon was discovered in the 1980s at the [[Zhejiang University of Technology]] and commercialized by 2003.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Huazhang |last2=Han |first2=Wenfeng |last3=Huo |first3=Chao |last4=Cen |first4=Yaqing |date=2020-09-15 |title=Development and application of wüstite-based ammonia synthesis catalysts |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0920586119305966 |journal=Catalysis Today |series=SI: Energy and the Environment |volume=355 |pages=110–127 |doi=10.1016/j.cattod.2019.10.031 |issn=0920-5861|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Pre-reduced, stabilized catalysts occupy a significant [[market share]]. They are delivered showing the fully developed pore structure, but have been oxidized again on the surface after manufacture and are therefore no longer [[Pyrophoricity|pyrophoric]]. The reactivation of such pre-reduced catalysts requires only 30 to 40 hours instead of several days. In addition to the short start-up time, they have other advantages such as higher water resistance and lower weight.<ref name="Appl" />
{| class="wikitable centered"
!Typical catalyst composition<ref name="ertl1">{{Cite journal |last=Ertl |first=Gerhard |year=1983 |title=Zum Mechanismus der Ammoniak-Synthese |journal=Nachrichten aus Chemie, Technik und Laboratorium |language=de |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=178–182 |doi=10.1002/nadc.19830310307}}</ref>
! Iron (%)
! Potassium (%)
! Aluminium (%)
! Calcium (%)
! Oxygen (%)
|-
|align="left" | Volume composition
| 40.5
| {{0}}0.35
| {{0}}2.0
| 1.7
| 53.2
|-
|align="left" | Surface composition before reduction
| {{0}}8.6
| 36.1
| 10.7
| 4.7
| 40.0
|-
|align="left" | Surface composition after reduction
| 11.0
| 27.0
| 17.0
| 4.0
| 41.0
|}