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Hidden curriculum
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== Literary references == [[John Dewey]] explored the hidden curriculum of education in his early 20th century works, especially in his classic, ''[[Democracy and Education]]''. Dewey saw patterns evolving and trends developing in public schools which lent themselves to his pro-democratic perspectives. His work was quickly rebutted by educational theorist [[George Counts]], whose 1929 book, ''[[Dare the School Build a New Social Order?]],'' challenged the presumptive nature of Dewey's works. Counts claimed that Dewey hypothesized a singular path through which all young people travelled in order to become adults without considering the reactive, adaptive, and multifaceted nature of learning. Counts emphasizes that this nature of learning caused many educators to slant their perspectives, practices, and assessments of student performance in directions that affected their students drastically.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}{{clarify|date=May 2019}} Counts' examinations were expanded on by [[Charles A. Beard]] and, later, [[Myles Horton]] who created what became the [[Highlander Folk School]] in Tennessee. The phrase "hidden curriculum" was coined by [[Philip W. Jackson]] (''Life In Classrooms'', 1968). He argued that we need to understand "[[education]]" as a [[socialization]] process.<ref>{{cite book |author=Philip Wesley Jackson |title=Life in Classrooms |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeinclassrooms00phil |url-access=registration |date=1968 |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|isbn=9780030676550 }} Reprinted as {{cite book |author=Philip Wesley Jackson |title=Life in Classrooms |year=1990|publisher=Teachers College Press |isbn=978-0-8077-7005-4 |pages=33–37}}</ref> Shortly after Jackson's coinage of the term, [[MIT]]'s Benson Snyder published ''[[The Hidden Curriculum]],'' which addresses the question of why students—even, or especially, the most gifted—turn away from education. Snyder advocates the thesis that much of campus conflict and students' personal anxiety is caused by a mass of unstated academic and social norms, which thwart the students' abilities to develop independently and think creatively. The hidden curriculum has been further explored by a number of educators. Starting with ''[[Pedagogy of the Oppressed]]'', published in 1972, through the late 1990s, Brazilian educator [[Paulo Freire]] explored various effects of presumptive teaching on students, schools, and society as a whole. Freire's explorations were in sync with those of [[John Caldwell Holt|John Holt]] and [[Ivan Illich]], each of whom were quickly identified as radical educators. Other theorists who have identified the nature of hidden curricula and hidden agendas include [[Neil Postman]], [[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], [[Joel Spring]], [[John Taylor Gatto]], and others. More recent definitions have been given by Roland Meighan ("A Sociology of Education," 1981) and Michael Haralambos ("Sociology: Themes and Perspectives," 1991). Meighan wrote, "The hidden curriculum is not taught by the school, and by any teacher...something is coming across to the pupils which may never be spoken in the English lesson or prayed about in assembly. They are picking-up an approach to living and an attitude to learning." Haralambos wrote, "The hidden curriculum consists of those things pupils learn through the experience of attending school rather than the stated educational objectives of such institutions." Further, educational critics [[Henry Giroux]],<ref name="Giroux 1983" /> [[bell hooks]], and [[Jonathan Kozol]] have also examined the effects of the hidden curriculum. Additionally, [[developmental psychologist]] [[Robert Kegan]] addressed the hidden curriculum of everyday life in his 1994 book ''[[Robert Kegan#In Over Our Heads|In Over Our Heads]]'', which focused on the relation between [[cognitive development]] and the "cognitive demands" of cultural expectations. Professor of communication [[Joseph Turow]], in his 2017 book ''The Aisles Have Eyes'', used the concept to describe acculturation to massive personal [[data collection]]; he wrote,<ref>{{cite book |last=Turow |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Turow |date=2017 |title=The aisles have eyes: how retailers track your shopping, strip your privacy, and define your power |location=New Haven |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=9780300212198 |oclc=959871776}}</ref> "The very activities that dismay privacy and anti-discrimination advocates are already beginning to become everyday habits in American lives, and part of Americans' cultural routines. Retailing is at the leading edge of a new ''hidden curriculum'' for American society—teaching people what they have to give up in order to get along in the twenty-first century."
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