Editing Iberian language (section)

==Phonology==
Very little is known for certain about Iberian. The investigation of the language is past its initial phase of transcription and compiling material, and is currently in the phase of identifying grammatical elements in the texts. The hypotheses currently proposed are unconfirmed, and are likely to remain so unless the discovery of a [[bilingual]] text allows linguists to confirm their deductions.

=== Vowels ===
Iberian appears to have five vowels commonly transcribed as {{lang|xib|a e i o u}}. Some other languages on the peninsula such as [[Basque language|Basque]] and modern [[Spanish language|Spanish]] also have such systems. Although five-vowel systems are extremely common all over the world, it has been suggested that this may point to a [[Sprachbund]] amongst the ancient languages of the Iberian peninsula.<ref name=Trask>[[Larry Trask|Trask, R.L.]] ''The History of Basque'' Routledge: 1997 {{ISBN|0-415-13116-2}}</ref>

The unrounded vowels (in frequency order: {{lang|xib|a, i, e}}) appear more frequently than the rounded vowels ({{lang|xib|u, o}}).  Although there are indications of a nasal vowel ({{lang|xib|ḿ}}), this is thought to be an [[allophone]]. Judging by Greek transcriptions, it seems that there were no vowel length distinctions; if this is correct then Iberian uses the long {{lang|xib|ē}} ({{langx|el|ἦτα|translit=êta}}) as opposed to the short epsilon {{langx|el|ἒ ψιλόν|translit=è psilón}}.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ caption | Vowels<ref>{{cite book |last=Agostiniani |first=Luciano |year=2013 |chapter=The Etruscan Language |title=The Etruscan World |editor=Jean MacIntosh Turfa |editor-link=Jean MacIntosh Turfa |pages=457–77 |place=Abingdon |publisher=Routledge |quote="We believe that for the Archaic period, the /a/ was a back vowel (as in French ''pâte'')".}}</ref>
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="1" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! colspan="2" |[[unrounded]]
! [[Roundedness|rounded]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPAslink|i}}<br>i<br>[[File:NE Iberian i1a.svg|14px|I]]
|
| {{IPAslink|u}}<br>u<br>[[File:NE Iberian u3.svg|14px|U]]
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPAslink|e}}<br>e<br>[[File:NE Iberian e1.svg|14px|E]]
|
| {{IPAslink|o}}<br>o<br>[[File:NE Iberian o1.svg|14px|O]]
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPAslink|a}}<br>a<br>[[File:NE Iberian a1a.svg|14px|A]]
|
|}

==== Diphthongs ====
It seems that the second element of [[diphthongs]] was always a closed vowel, as in {{lang|xib|ai}} ({{lang|xib|śaitabi}}), {{lang|xib|ei}} ({{lang|xib|neitin}}), and {{lang|xib|au}} ({{lang|xib|lauŕ}}). Untermann observed that the diphthong {{lang|xib|ui}} could only be found in the first cluster.

==== Semivowels ====
It is possible that Iberian had the [[semivowels]] {{IPA|/j/}} (in words such as {{lang|xib|aiun}} or {{lang|xib|iunstir}}) and {{IPA|/w/}} (only in loanwords such as {{lang|xib|diuiś}} from [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]]).  The fact that {{IPA|/w/}} is lacking in native words casts doubt on whether semivowels really existed in Iberian outside of foreign borrowings and diphthongs.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Consonants<ref>{{Citation |last1=Ferrer |first1=J. |title=Palaeohispanic writing systems |date=2019-02-28 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198790822.003.0004 |work=Palaeohispanic Languages and Epigraphies |pages=78–108 |access-date=2023-07-28 |publisher=Oxford University Press |last2=Moncunill |first2=N.|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198790822.003.0004 |isbn=978-0-19-879082-2 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
! colspan="2" |
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{IPAslink|m}}<br>[[File:NE Iberian m1.svg|14px|M]]
|{{IPAslink|n}}<br>[[File:Greek Nu 01.svg|14px|N]]
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| {{IPAslink|b}}<br>[[File:NE Iberian ba1.svg|7px|ba]] [[File:NE Iberian be1.svg|14px|be]]
[[File:NE Iberian bi1.svg|14px|bi]] [[File:NE Iberian bo2.svg|14px|bo]] [[File:NE Iberian bu1.svg|14px|bu]]
| {{IPAslink|d}}~{{IPAslink|t}}<br>[[File:NE Iberian ta1.svg|14px|Ta]] [[File:NE Iberian te1.svg|14px|Te]]
[[File:NE Iberian ti4.svg|14px|Ti]] [[File:NE Iberian to2.svg|14px|To]] [[File:NE Iberian tu1.svg|14px|Tu]]
| {{IPAslink|ɡ}}~{{IPAslink|k}}<br>[[File:NE Iberian ka1.svg|14px|Ka]] [[File:NE Iberian ke1.svg|14px|ke]]
[[File:NE Iberian ki1.svg|14px|ki]] [[File:Greek Epsilon X-shaped.svg|14px|ko]] [[File:Greek Theta 01.svg|14px|ku]]
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Affricate]]
|
|{{IPAslink|t͡s}}<br>⟨s⟩{{efn|name=alternative_romanization|Based on purported sound correspondences with Basque, ⟨s⟩ and ⟨r⟩ are sometimes alternatively transcribed as ⟨z⟩ and ⟨rr⟩ respectively; in which case ⟨ś⟩ and ⟨ŕ⟩ are transcribed as ⟨s⟩ and ⟨r⟩ instead.}}<br>[[File:NE Iberian ś1.svg|14px|S]]
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Fricative]]
|
|{{IPAslink|s}}<br>⟨ś⟩{{efn|name=alternative_romanization}}<br>[[File:NE Iberian s1b.svg|14px|Ś]]
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|{{IPAslink|l}}<br>[[File:Greek Lambda Gamma-shaped.svg|17x17px|L]]
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
! [[Flap consonant|Flap]]
|
|{{IPAslink|ɾ}}<br>⟨ŕ⟩{{efn|name=alternative_romanization}}<br>[[File:Greek Koppa 05.svg|18px|R]]
|
|-
![[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|{{IPAslink|r}}<br>⟨r⟩{{efn|name=alternative_romanization}}<br>[[File:NE Iberian r1a.svg|14px|R]]
|
|}
{{notelist}}

* [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotics]]: There are two rhotics {{lang|xib|r}} and {{lang|xib|ŕ}}. Iberian specialists do not agree about the phonetic values assigned to either rhotic. Correa (1994) hypothesized that {{lang|xib|ŕ}} was an [[alveolar flap]] {{IPAslink|ɾ}} and {{lang|xib|r}} was a "compound vibrant", that is, a [[alveolar trill|trill]] {{IPAslink|r}}. Later, Rodríguez Ramos (2004) suggested that {{lang|xib|ŕ}} was an alveolar flap {{IPAslink|ɾ}} and {{lang|xib|r}} is a [[retroflex]] flap {{IPAslink|ɽ}} in line with Ballester (2001) who thought that {{lang|xib|r}} represents a [[uvular]] [[fricative]] {{IPAslink|ʁ}}. However, Ballester (2005) later changed his hypothesis and took {{lang|xib|r}} for an alveolar flap {{IPAslink|ɾ}} and {{lang|xib|ŕ}} for the alveolar trill {{IPAslink|r}}. Neither {{lang|xib|r}} nor {{lang|xib|ŕ}} occurs word-initially, which is also the case in [[Basque language|Basque]].
* [[Sibilant consonant|Sibilants]]: There are two sibilants {{lang|xib|s}} and {{lang|xib|ś}}. The distinction is unclear, and there are multiple proposals. Ballester (2001) theorizes that {{lang|xib|s}} was an alveolar {{IPAslink|s}} and {{lang|xib|ś}} was an [[voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative|alveolo-palatal]] {{IPAslink|ɕ}}. Rodríguez Ramos (2004) proposes that {{lang|xib|ś}} was alveolar {{IPAslink|s}} and {{lang|xib|s}} was an affricate, either dental/alveolar {{IPAslink|t͡s}} or palatal {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}} (like English "ch"). This proposal coincides with the observation by Correa on adaptations of Gallic names in Iberian texts.
* [[lateral consonant|Laterals]]: The lateral {{lang|xib|l}} is normally interpreted as {{IPAslink|l}}. It is extremely rare in final position and it could be that the distribution is on occasion complementary with {{lang|xib|ŕ}}: {{lang|xib|aŕika'''l'''-er}} ~ {{lang|xib|aŕika'''ŕ'''-bi}}.
* [[Nasal stop|Nasals]]:
** The {{lang|xib|n}} was probably alveolar {{IPAslink|n}}.
** {{lang|xib|m}}: Researchers studying Iberian do not agree on the kind of nasal represented by this letter. The letter {{lang|xib|m}} rarely occurs word-initially. Velaza (1996) hypothesizes it could be an allophone of medial {{lang|xib|n}}, as shown in the example of {{lang|xib|iumstir/iunstir}}. José A. Correa (1999) suggests it may be a [[Gemination|geminate]] or strong nasal. Ballester (2001) considers it to be a [[Labialization|labialized]] nasal in Iberian and in Celtiberian. Rodríguez Ramos (2004) mentions that it could be an allophone of {{lang|xib|n}} where it nasalizes the preceding vowel.
** There is some controversy over the sign transcribed as {{lang|xib|ḿ}}. While it is thought to be some type of nasal, there is no certainty as to its phonetic value. Several linguists agree on the value {{IPA|[na]}}, based on similarities with texts written in the Greek alphabet, as there are similarities between the suffixes {{lang|xib|-ḿi}} / {{lang|xib|-nai}}, and in the [[Onomastics|onomastic]] elements {{lang|xib|-ḿbar-}} / {{lang|xib|-nabar-}}.  Another part of this theory seems to contradict itself with the transcription of {{lang|xib|ḿbar-beleś}} into Latin as {{lang|la|VMARBELES}}. Correa (1999) proposes that it was a [[Labialization|labialized]] nasal. It is not even clear that the sign is always pronounced in the same form. Rodríguez Ramos (2004) considers it a nasalized vowel, produced by progressive nasalization.
* [[Plosives]]: There are five plosives.

{|align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2"
|bgcolor=aliceblue|
|bgcolor=aliceblue|voiced
|bgcolor=aliceblue|unvoiced
|-
|bgcolor=aliceblue|labial
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|{{IPA|/b/}}
|
|-
|bgcolor=aliceblue|coronal
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|{{IPA|/d/}}
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|{{IPA|/t/}}
|-
|bgcolor=aliceblue|dorsal
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|{{IPA|/ɡ/}}
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|{{IPA|/k/}}
|
|}

:There appears to have been a certain degree of allophony between voiced and unvoiced plosives, as evidenced by the lack of distinction between the two in certain scripts.
:The evidence indicates the non-existence of a phoneme {{lang|xib|p}} as it is not documented either in the Greek alphabet or in the dual Iberian systems. It is only found in Latin inscriptions naming native Iberians and is thought to be an allophone of {{lang|xib|b}}.
:It has been suggested that the phoneme {{lang|xib|b}} would on occasions have been pronounced similar to {{lang|xib|w}} (this would be explained by the frequency of the sign {{lang|xib|bu}}), and as such it could have had a nasalized pronunciation.