Editing Iconoclasm (section)

===Reformation era===
{{further|Beeldenstorm|Iconophobia#Iconophobia and the English Reformation}}
[[File:Tachtigjarigeoorlog-1566.png|thumb|Extent (in blue) of the ''[[Beeldenstorm]]'' through the [[Spanish Netherlands]]]]
The first iconoclastic wave happened in [[Wittenberg]] in the early 1520s under reformers [[Thomas Müntzer]] and [[Andreas Karlstadt]]. In 1522 Karlstadt published his tract, [https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Von_abtuhung_der_Bylder "Von abtuhung der Bylder."] ("On the removal of images"), which added to the growing unrest in Wittenberg.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=Carter |title=The European reformations |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-119-64081-3 |edition=3rd |location=Chichester, United Kingdom Hoboken, New Jersey |pages=84–91}}</ref> [[Martin Luther]], then concealed under the pen-name of 'Junker Jörg', intervened to calm things down. Luther argued that the mental picturing of Christ when reading the Scriptures was similar in character to artistic renderings of Christ.<ref>[[Isaak August Dorner|Dorner, Isaak August]]. 1871. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AgRBAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22The+Scripture+has+pictures%22&pg=PA146 ''History of Protestant Theology'']. Edinburgh. p. 146.</ref>

In contrast to the [[Lutheran]]s who favoured certain types of sacred art in their churches and homes,<ref name="Lamport2017">{{cite book |last=Lamport |first=Mark A. |title=Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation |year=2017 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |language=en|isbn=978-1442271593 |page=138 |quote=Lutherans continued to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Germany to this day one finds more ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval art and architecture survived. [[Joseph Koerner]] has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, apostolic church, sought to defend as well as reform the use of images. "An empty, white-washed church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther's doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came not from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: "You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of art continued to be displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther's ''theologia crucis''. ... In contrast, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Usually unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate altar-pieces are largely absent; there are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are also mostly absent.}}</ref><ref name="Felix2015"/> the [[Reformed tradition|Reformed]] (Calvinist) leaders, in particular [[Andreas Karlstadt]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]] and [[John Calvin]], encouraged the removal of religious images by invoking the [[Ten Commandments|Decalogue's]] prohibition of idolatry and the manufacture of graven (sculpted) images of God.<ref name="Felix2015">{{cite book |last=Félix |first=Steven |title=Pentecostal Aesthetics: Theological Reflections in a Pentecostal Philosophy of Art and Esthetics |year= 2015 |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |language=en |isbn=978-9004291621 |page=22 |quote=Luther's view was that biblical images could be used as teaching aids, and thus had didactic value. Hence Luther stood against the destruction of images whereas several other reformers (Karlstadt, Zwingli, Calvin) promoted these actions. In the following passage, Luther harshly rebukes Karlstadt on his stance on iconoclasm and his disorderly conduct in reform.}}</ref> As a result, individuals attacked statues and images, most famously in the ''[[beeldenstorm]]'' across the Low Countries in 1566.

The belief of iconoclasm caused havoc throughout [[Europe]]. In 1523, specifically due to the Swiss reformer [[Huldrych Zwingli]], a vast number of his followers viewed themselves as being involved in a spiritual community that in matters of faith should obey neither the visible Church nor lay authorities. According to Peter George Wallace "Zwingli's attack on images, at the first debate, triggered iconoclastic incidents in Zürich and the villages under civic jurisdiction that the reformer was unwilling to condone." Due to this action of protest against authority, "Zwingli responded with a carefully reasoned treatise that men could not live in society without laws and constraint".<ref>Wallace, Peter George. 2004. ''The Long European Reformation: Religion, Political Conflict, and the Search for Conformity, 1350–1750''. Basingstoke, UK: [[Palgrave Macmillan]]. p.&nbsp;95.</ref>

Significant iconoclastic riots took place in [[Basel]] (in 1529), [[Zürich]] (1523), [[Copenhagen]] (1530), [[Münster]] (1534), [[Geneva]] (1535), [[Augsburg]] (1537), [[Scotland]] (1559), [[Rouen]] (1560), and [[Saintes, Charente-Maritime|Saintes]] and [[La Rochelle]] (1562).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekSkZXXjVWUC&pg=RA1-PA148 |title=Neil Kamil, ''Fortress of the soul: violence, metaphysics, and material life'', p. 148 |access-date=2013-04-30|isbn=978-0801873904 |last1=Kamil |first1=Neil |date=2005 |publisher=JHU Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Voracious Idols and Violent Hands|last=Wandel|first=Lee Palmer|publisher=Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge|year=1995|isbn=978-0-521-47222-7|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=[https://archive.org/details/voraciousidolsvi0000wand/page/149 149]|url=https://archive.org/details/voraciousidolsvi0000wand/page/149}}</ref> Calvinist iconoclasm in Europe "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized the neighbouring [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]" in the Baltic region.<ref name="Marshall2009">{{cite book|last=Marshall|first=Peter|title=The Reformation|url=https://archive.org/details/reformationverys00mars|url-access=limited|date=22 October 2009|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|language=en|isbn=978-0191578885|page=[https://archive.org/details/reformationverys00mars/page/n122 114]|quote=Iconoclastic incidents during the Calvinist 'Second Reformation' in Germany provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs, while Protestant image-breaking in the Baltic region deeply antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox, a group with whom reformers might have hoped to make common cause.}}</ref>

The [[Seventeen Provinces]] (now the Netherlands, Belgium, and parts of Northern France) were disrupted by widespread Calvinist iconoclasm in the summer of 1566.<ref name="Kleiner2010">{{cite book|last=Kleiner|first=Fred S.|title=Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Concise History of Western Art|year=2010|publisher=Cengage Learning|language=en |isbn=978-1424069224|page=254|quote=In an episode known as the Great Iconoclasm, bands of Calvinists visited Catholic churches in the Netherlands in 1566, shattering stained-glass windows, smashing statues, and destroying paintings and other artworks they perceived as idolatrous.}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Calvinist iconoclasm during the Reformation" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="210">
File:Destruction of icons in Zurich 1524.jpg|Destruction of religious images by the Reformed in [[Zürich]], Switzerland, 1524
File:Le Sac de Lyon par les Réformés - Vers1565.jpg|''[[Looting]] of the Churches of [[Lyon]] by the [[Calvinists]] in 1562'' by [[Antoine Caron]]
File:Iconoclasm Clocher Saint Barthelemy south side La Rochelle.jpg|Remains of Calvinist iconoclasm, Clocher Saint-Barthélémy, [[La Rochelle]], France
File:2008-09 Nijmegen st stevens beeldenstorm.JPG|16th-century iconoclasm in the [[Protestant Reformation]]. Relief statues in St.&nbsp;Stevenskerk in [[Nijmegen]], Netherlands, were attacked and defaced by Calvinists in the ''Beeldenstorm''.<ref name="Stark2007">{{cite book |last=Stark |first=Rodney |title=The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success|year=2007 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |language=en |isbn=978-1588365002 |page=176 |quote=The Beeldenstorm, or Iconoclastic Fury, involved roving bands of radical Calvinists who were utterly opposed to all religious images and decorations in churches and who acted on their beliefs by storming into Catholic churches and destroying all artwork and finery.}}</ref><ref name="Byfield2002">{{cite book |last=Byfield|first=Ted|title=A Century of Giants, A.D. 1500 to 1600: In an Age of Spiritual Genius, Western Christendom Shatters |year=2002 |publisher=Christian History Project |language=en |isbn=978-0968987391 |page=297 |quote=Devoutly Catholic but opposed to Inquisition tactics, they backed William of Orange in subduing the Calvinist uprising of the Dutch beeldenstorm on behalf of regent Margaret of Parma, and had come willingly to the council at her invitation.}}</ref>
</gallery>

[[File:Ed and pope.png|thumb|right|alt=A painting|288px|In this [[Elizabethan]] work of propaganda, the top right depicts men pulling down and smashing icons, while power is shifting from the dying King [[Henry VIII]] at left, pointing to his staunchly [[Protestantism|Protestant]] son, the boy-king [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] at centre.<ref>{{citation | last =Aston| first = Margaret| title =The King's Bedpost: Reformation and Iconography in a Tudor Group Portrait| year =1993 | publisher=Cambridge University Press| place = Cambridge| isbn =978-0-521-48457-2}}.
</ref><ref>{{citation | last =Loach | first = Jennifer | title =Edward VI |editor1-first=George |editor1-last=Bernard |editor2-first=Penry|editor2-last=Williams|  year =1999  | publisher=Yale University Press | place= New Haven, CT | isbn =978-0-300-07992-0 |page=187}}</ref><ref>{{citation | last =Hearn | first =Karen | title =Dynasties: Painting in Tudor and Jacobean England 1530–1630 | year =1995 | publisher =Rizzoli | place =New York | isbn =978-0-8478-1940-9 | url =https://archive.org/details/dynastiespaintin00kare |pages=75–76}}</ref>]]
During the [[Reformation in England]], which started during the reign of [[Henry VIII]], and was urged on by reformers such as [[Hugh Latimer]] and [[Thomas Cranmer]], limited official action was taken against religious images in churches in the late 1530s. Henry's young son, [[Edward VI]], came to the throne in 1547 and, under Cranmer's guidance, issued injunctions for religious reforms in the same year and in 1549 the [[Putting away of Books and Images Act 1549|Putting away of Books and Images Act]].<ref>Heal, Felicity (2005), [https://books.google.com/books?id=mtGoSCVhRFIC&dq=1550+statute+for+abolishing+images&pg=PA264 ''Reformation in Britain and Ireland''], Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-928015-5}} (pp. 263–264)</ref>

During the [[English Civil War]], the [[Roundhead|Parliamentarians]] reorganised the administration of [[East Anglia]] into the [[Eastern Association]] of counties. This covered some of the wealthiest counties in [[England]], which in turn financed a substantial and significant military force. After [[Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester|Earl of Manchester]] was appointed the commanding officer of these forces, in turn he appointed [[William Dowsing|Smasher Dowsing]] as [[Provost Marshal]], with a warrant to demolish religious images which were considered to be superstitious or linked with popism.<ref name="Evelyn White Dowsing 1886">{{cite journal |last1=Evelyn White |first1=Parliamentary Visitor |title=The Journal of William Dowsing, Parliamentary Visitor |journal=Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology and History |date=1886 |volume=VI |issue=Part 2 |pages=236 to 295 |url=https://suffolkinstitute.pdfsrv.co.uk/customers/Suffolk%20Institute/2014/01/10/Volume%20VI%20Part%202%20(1886)_Journal%20of%20W%20Dowsing%20Parliamentary%20Visitor%20&c%20E%20White%20C%20H_236%20to%20295.pdf|author1-link=Charles Harold Evelyn-White }}</ref> Bishop [[Joseph Hall (bishop)|Joseph Hall]] of [[Norwich]] described the events of 1643 when troops and citizens, encouraged by a Parliamentary ordinance against superstition and [[idolatry]], behaved thus:

<blockquote>Lord what work was here! What clattering of glasses! What beating down of walls! What tearing up of monuments! What pulling down of seats! What wresting out of irons and brass from the windows! What defacing of arms! What demolishing of curious stonework! What tooting and piping upon organ pipes! And what a hideous triumph in the market-place before all the country, when all the mangled organ pipes, vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had newly been sawn down from the Green-yard pulpit and the service-books and singing books that could be carried to the fire in the public market-place were heaped together.</blockquote>

[[File:Altarpiece fragments late 1300 early 1400 destroyed during the English Dissolution mid 16th century.jpg|thumb|left|Altarpiece fragments (late 1300 – early 1400) destroyed during the English [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], mid-16th century]]
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[[William Dowsing]] was commissioned and salaried by the government to tour the towns and villages of [[East Anglia]] to destroy images in churches. His detailed record of his trail of destruction through Suffolk and Cambridgeshire survives:<ref name="Dowsing">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofdowsing00whituoft |title=The journal of William Dowsing of Stratford, parliamentary visitor, appointed under a warrant from the Earl of Manchester, for demolishing the superstitious pictures and ornaments of churches &c., within the county of Suffolk, in the years 1643–
1644 |year=1885 |last=White |first=C.H. Evelyn |page=[https://archive.org/details/journalofdowsing00whituoft/page/15 15] }}</ref>

{{Blockquote|We broke down about a hundred superstitious Pictures; and seven Fryars hugging a Nunn; and the Picture of God and Christ; and divers others very superstitious; and 200 had been broke down before I came. We took away 2 popish Inscriptions with ''Ora pro nobis'' and we beat down a great stoneing Cross on the top of the Church.|Dowsing,<ref name="Dowsing"/> p. 15, [[Haverhill, Suffolk]], January 6, 1644}}
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[[Protestantism|Protestant Christianity]] was not uniformly hostile to the use of religious images. Martin Luther taught the "importance of images as tools for instruction and aids to devotion,"<ref name="Naaeke2006">{{cite book|last=Naaeke|first=Anthony Y.|title=Kaleidoscope Catechesis: Missionary Catechesis in Africa, Particularly in the Diocese of Wa in Ghana|year=2006|publisher=Peter Lang|language=en|isbn=978-0820486857|page=114|quote=Although some reformers, such as John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli, rejected all images, Martin Luther defended the importance of images as tools for instruction and aids to devotion.}}</ref> stating: "If it is not a sin but good to have the image of Christ in my heart, why should it be a sin to have it in my eyes?"<ref name="Noble2009">{{cite book|last=Noble|first=Bonnie|title=Lucas Cranach the Elder: Art and Devotion of the German Reformation|url=https://archive.org/details/lucascranachelde00nobl_213|url-access=limited|year=2009|publisher=University Press of America|language=en|isbn=978-0761843375|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lucascranachelde00nobl_213/page/n75 67]–69}}</ref> Lutheran churches retained ornate church interiors with a prominent [[crucifix]], reflecting their high view of the real presence of Christ in [[Eucharist in Lutheranism|Eucharist]].<ref name="Spicer2016"/><ref name="Lamport2017"/> As such, "Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior."<ref name="Spicer2016">{{cite book|last=Spicer|first=Andrew|title=Lutheran Churches in Early Modern Europe|year= 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|language=en|isbn=978-1351921169|page=237|quote=As it developed in north-eastern Germany, Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior. This much is evident from the background of an epitaph pained in 1615 by Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (see Figure 5.5.).}}</ref> For Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image."<ref name="Dixon2012">{{cite book|last=Dixon|first=C. Scott|title=Contesting the Reformation|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|language=en|isbn=978-1118272305|page=146|quote=According to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.}}</ref>

Lutheran scholar Jeremiah Ohl writes:<ref>Ohl, Jeremiah F. 1906. "Art in Worship." pp. 83–99 in [https://blc.edu/comm/gargy/gargy1/Memoirs.Volume2.html ''Memoirs of the Lutheran Liturgical Association'' 2]. Pittsburgh: Lutheran Liturgical Association.</ref>{{Rp|88–89}}<blockquote>Zwingli and others for the sake of saving the Word rejected all plastic art; Luther, with an equal concern for the Word, but far more conservative, would have all the arts to be the servants of the Gospel. "I am not of the opinion" said [Luther], "that through the Gospel all the arts should be banished and driven away, as some zealots want to make us believe; but I wish to see them all, especially music, in the service of Him Who gave and created them." Again he says: "I have myself heard those who oppose pictures, read from my German Bible.... But this contains many pictures of God, of the angels, of men, and of animals, especially in the Revelation of St. John, in the books of Moses, and in the book of Joshua. We therefore kindly beg these fanatics to permit us also to paint these pictures on the wall that they may be remembered and better understood, inasmuch as they can harm as little on the walls as in books. Would to God that I could persuade those who can afford it to paint the whole Bible on their houses, inside and outside, so that all might see; this would indeed be a Christian work. For I am convinced that it is God's will that we should hear and learn what He has done, especially what Christ suffered. But when I hear these things and meditate upon them, I find it impossible not to picture them in my heart. Whether I want to or not, when I hear, of Christ, a human form hanging upon a cross rises up in my heart: just as I see my natural face reflected when I look into water. Now if it is not sinful for me to have Christ's picture in my heart, why should it be sinful to have it before my eyes?</blockquote>The Ottoman Sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]], who had pragmatic reasons to support the [[Dutch Revolt]] (the rebels, like himself, were fighting against Spain) also completely approved of their act of "destroying idols," which accorded well with Muslim teachings.<ref>{{cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |author-link=Halil İnalcık |chapter=The Turkish Impact on the Development of Modern Europe | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=orEfAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA51 |editor-last=Karpat | editor-first=K. H. |editor-link=Kemal Karpat| title=The Ottoman State and Its Place in World History: Introduction | publisher=Brill | series=Armenian Research Center collection | year=1974 | isbn=978-90-04-03945-2 |location=Leiden |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=orEfAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA53 53] <!-- 51–60 -->}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BjC7K1j_AT8C&pg=PA208|title=Muslims and the Gospel: Bridging the Gap : a Reflection on Christian Sharing|first=Roland E.|last=Miller|year=2006|publisher=Kirk House Publishers|isbn=978-1932688078|via=Google Books}}</ref>

16th century Protestant iconoclasm had various effects on visual arts: it encouraged the development of art with violent images such as martyrdoms, of pieces whose subject was the dangers of idolatry, or art stripped of objects with overt Catholic symbolism: the [[still life]], [[landscape art|landscape]] and [[genre paintings]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Art after iconoclasm: painting in the Netherlands between 1566 and 1585 |date=2012 |publisher=Brepols |location=Turnhout |isbn=978-2-503-54596-7}}</ref>{{rp|44,25,40}}