Editing Intelligence quotient (section)

===Other theories===
An alternative to standard IQ tests, meant to test the [[zone of proximal development|proximal development]] of children, originated in the writings of psychologist [[Lev Vygotsky]] (1896–1934) during his last two years of his life.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mindes|first1=Gayle|title=Assessing Young Children |date=2003 |publisher= Merrill/Prentice Hall |isbn=9780130929082 |page=158 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x41LAAAAYAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Haywood|first1=H. Carl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xQekS_oqGzoC|title=Dynamic Assessment in Practice: Clinical and Educational Applications |last2=Lidz |first2=Carol S.|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139462075 |page=1}}</ref> According to Vygotsky, the maximum level of complexity and difficulty of problems that a child is capable to solve under some guidance indicates their level of potential development. The difference between this level of potential and the lower level of unassisted performance indicates the child's zone of proximal development.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/works/1934/problem-age.htm |last=Vygotsky |first=L.S. |year=1934 |chapter=The Problem of Age |title=The Collected Works of L. S. Vygotsky, Volume 5 |publication-date=1998 |pages=187–205}}</ref> Combination of the two indexes{{--}}the level of actual and the zone of the proximal development{{--}}according to Vygotsky, provides a significantly more informative indicator of psychological development than the assessment of the level of actual development alone.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chaiklin |first=S. |year=2003 |chapter=The Zone of Proximal Development in Vygotsky's analysis of learning and instruction |editor-last1=Kozulin |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=Gindis |editor-first2=B. |editor-last3=Ageyev |editor-first3=V. |editor-last4=Miller |editor-first4=S. |title=Vygotsky's educational theory and practice in cultural context |pages=39–64 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Zaretskii |first=V.K. |title=The Zone of Proximal Development What Vygotsky Did Not Have Time to Write |journal=[[Journal of Russian and East European Psychology]] |volume=47 |issue=6 |date=November–December 2009 |pages=70–93|doi=10.2753/RPO1061-0405470604 |s2cid=146894219 }}</ref> His ideas on the zone of development were later developed in a number of psychological and educational theories and practices, most notably under the banner of [[dynamic assessment]], which seeks to measure developmental potential<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sternberg|first1=R.S. |last2=Grigorenko|first2=E.L.|year=2001|title=All testing is dynamic testing|journal=Issues in Education |volume=7 |issue=2|pages=137–170}}</ref><ref>Sternberg, R.J. & Grigorenko, E.L. (2002). Dynamic testing: The nature and measurement of learning potential. Cambridge: University of Cambridge</ref>{{sfn|Haywood|Lidz |2006|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}} (for instance, in the work of [[Reuven Feuerstein]] and his associates,<ref>Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, S., Falik, L & Rand, Y. (1979; 2002). Dynamic assessments of cognitive modifiability. ICELP Press, Jerusalem: Israel</ref> who has [[Reuven Feuerstein#Difference between IQ test and Dynamic Assessment|criticized standard IQ testing]] for its putative assumption or acceptance of "fixed and immutable" characteristics of intelligence or cognitive functioning). Dynamic assessment has been further elaborated in the work of [[Ann Brown]], and [[John D. Bransford]] and in theories of [[multiple intelligences]] authored by [[Howard Gardner]] and [[Robert Sternberg]].<ref>{{cite book |contributor=Dodge, Kenneth A. |contribution=Foreword |pages=xiii–xv |last1=Haywood |first1=H. Carl |last2=Lidz |first2=Carol S. |title=Dynamic Assessment in Practice: Clinical And Educational Applications |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kozulin |first=A. |year=2014 |chapter=Dynamic assessment in search of its identity |editor-last1=Yasnitsky |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=van der Veer |editor-first2=R. |editor-last3=Ferrari |editor-first3=M. |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Cultural-Historical Psychology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=126–147}}</ref>

[[J.P. Guilford]]'s [[J.P. Guilford#Guilford's Structure of Intellect|Structure of Intellect]] (1967) model of intelligence used three dimensions, which, when combined, yielded a total of 120 types of intelligence. It was popular in the 1970s and early 1980s, but faded owing to both practical problems and [[theoretical]] criticisms.<ref name="Kaufman2009" />

[[Alexander Luria]]'s earlier work on neuropsychological processes led to the PASS theory (1997). It argued that only looking at one general factor was inadequate for researchers and clinicians who worked with learning disabilities, attention disorders, intellectual disability, and interventions for such disabilities. The PASS model covers four kinds of processes (planning process, attention/arousal process, simultaneous processing, and successive processing). The planning processes involve decision making, problem solving, and performing activities and require goal setting and self-monitoring.

The attention/arousal process involves selectively attending to a particular stimulus, ignoring distractions, and maintaining vigilance. Simultaneous processing involves the integration of stimuli into a group and requires the observation of relationships. Successive processing involves the integration of stimuli into serial order. The planning and attention/arousal components comes from structures located in the frontal lobe, and the simultaneous and successive processes come from structures located in the posterior region of the cortex.<ref name=Das1975>{{Cite journal |author1=Das, J.P. |author2=Kirby, J. |author3=Jarman, R.F. |year=1975 |title=Simultaneous and successive synthesis: An alternative model for cognitive abilities |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=82 |pages=87–103 |doi=10.1037/h0076163}}</ref><ref name=Das2002>{{Cite journal |author=Das, J.P. |year=2000 |title=A better look at intelligence |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=11 |pages=28–33 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00162|s2cid=146129242}}</ref><ref name= Naglieri1990>{{Cite journal |author1=Naglieri, J.A. |author2=Das, J.P. |year=2002 |title=Planning, attention, simultaneous, and successive cognitive processes as a model for assessment |journal=School Psychology Review |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=423–442|doi=10.1080/02796015.1990.12087349 }}</ref> It has influenced some recent IQ tests, and been seen as a complement to the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory described above.<ref name=Kaufman2009/>