Editing Intrapersonal communication (section)

== Relation to mental health ==
The way intrapersonal communication is conducted can be responsible both for positive [[mental health]] and [[mental illness]]. This pertains specifically to positive and negative self-talk as well as its relation to the self-concept.{{sfn|Farley|1992|pp=481–484}}{{sfn|Vargas|Evangelista|Ueda|Santana|2023|p=27}}{{sfn|Gravell|France|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x0v2BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 14–15]}}

=== Positive and negative self-talk ===
Self-talk is a form of talking to oneself. It differs from inner dialogue since it only involves one voice and not an internal exchange between several voices.{{sfn|Oleś|Brinthaupt|Dier|Polak|2020|pp=1–3}}{{sfn|Lane|Abigail|Gooch|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ISgRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 62–63]}} A common distinction is between positive and negative self-talk based on the evaluative attitude that is expressed. For negative self-talk, the inner voice focuses on bad aspects of the self, often in an excessively critical way. It can take the form of telling oneself that "I'm never going to be able to do this" or "I'm no good at this".{{sfn|Healthdirect staff|2022}}{{sfn|Ellis|2023}} Negative self-talk can already develop during childhood based on feedback from others, particularly parents.{{sfn|Beck|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jc6ioXHV9rAC 40–42]}}

For some people, negative self-talk is not just an occasional occurrence but happens frequently. In such cases, it can have detrimental effects on mental health. For example, it can affect emotional [[well-being]] by evoking a negative mood. This can lead to [[Psychological stress|stress]], anxiety, and [[Depression (mood)|depression]]. It can also negatively affect a person's [[confidence]] in various areas, for example, concerning their body image.{{sfn|Healthdirect staff|2022}}{{sfn|Macklem|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kedOwLSynJAC&pg=PA202 202]}}{{sfn|Rimes|Watkins|2005|pp=1673–1681}} Positive self-talk, on the other hand, involves seeing oneself in a positive light. It is linked to mental health benefits. They include higher self-esteem and well-being as well as reducing the effects of depression and [[personality disorder]]s. It is associated with lower stress levels and a reduced risk of [[self-harm]] and [[suicide]].{{sfn|Healthdirect staff|2022}} The effects of positive and negative self-talk are often discussed in [[sport psychology]]. A common idea in this regard is that positive self-talk enhances performance while negative self-talk hinders it. There is some [[empirical evidence]] supporting this position but it has not yet been thoroughly researched.{{sfn|Schinke|McGannon|Smith|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MneFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA451 451]}}

Like other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication can be trained and improved to be more effective. This often happens with the goal of reducing negative self-talk and fostering positive self-talk instead. An early step is often to become aware of negative patterns and acknowledge their existence. This can be followed by questioning and challenging negative evaluations since they are often exaggerated. The person may also try to stop them and replace them with more positive thoughts.{{sfn|Healthdirect staff|2022}}{{sfn|Lederman|2002|pp=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/intrapersonal-communication 490–492]|loc=Intrapersonal communication}}{{sfn|MacNeil-Kelly|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G2vsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 42–44]}} For example, when the person becomes aware of a negative thinking process, they may try to inhibit it and direct their attention to more positive outcomes.{{sfn|MacNeil-Kelly|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G2vsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 42–44]}}

A similar approach is used in [[cognitive behavioral therapy]]. A central idea in this field is that a set of negative core beliefs is responsible for negative self-talk. They can include beliefs like "I'm unlovable", "I'm unworthy", or "the world is threatening and I'm unable to face its challenges". A key therapeutic method for improving intrapersonal communication is to become aware of these beliefs and to question their truth.{{sfn|LaMotte|2021}} A further approach focuses on the practice of [[mindfulness]]. By raising [[self-awareness]], it may improve self-esteem and intrapersonal communication.{{sfn|Wrench|Punyanunt-Carter|Thweatt|2020|loc=[https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/interpersonalcommunication/chapter/3/ 3. Intrapersonal Communication]}} This practice consists in directing one's attention to experiences in the present moment without any evaluation of these experiences.{{sfn|Baer|2003|pp=[http://www.wisebrain.org/papers/MindfulnessPsyTx.pdf 125–143]}} Abstaining from value judgments may help to avoid overly critical evaluations and instead foster an attitude of acceptance.{{sfn|Wrench|Punyanunt-Carter|Thweatt|2020|loc=[https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/interpersonalcommunication/chapter/3/ 3. Intrapersonal Communication]}}{{sfn|Farley|1992|pp=481–484}}

==== Examples of specific forms of self-talk and their effects ====
Different forms of self-talk can have different effects on the person. One form is coping self-talk. Its main aim is to help a person cope with a difficult situation, such as when experiencing anxiety. It consists in emphasizing the person's strengths and skills without implying perfection. This can help people calm down and become clear on their goals and how to realistically achieve them.{{sfn|Flessner|Piacentini|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nI15DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA152 152]}}{{sfn|Nelson-Jones|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tMZEqSZ1B_oC&pg=PA23 23–24]}} Another relevant form is instructional self-talk, which focuses attention on the components of a task and can improve performance on physical tasks that are being learned.{{sfn|Tod|Hardy|Oliver|2011|pp=666–687}}{{sfn|Hatzigeorgiadis|Zourbanos|Galanis|Theordorakis|2011|pp=348–356}} However, it may have negative effects for people who are already skilled in the task.{{sfn|Beilock|Carr|McMahon|Starkes|2002|pp=6–16}}

Some forms of self-talk address the self by employing [[Personal_pronoun#Person_and_number|first-person pronouns]] ("I") while others use second-person pronouns ("you"). Generally speaking, people are more likely to use the second-person pronoun when there is a need for self-regulation, an imperative to overcome difficulties, and facilitation of hard actions.{{sfn|Gammage|Hardy|Hall|2001|pp=233–247}}{{sfn|Zell|Warriner|Albarracín|2012|pp=549–555}} The use of first-person intrapersonal pronouns is more frequent when people are talking to themselves about their feelings.{{sfn|Oliver|Markland|Hardy|Petherick|2008|pp=200–212}} A 2014 study by Sanda Dolcos and Dolores Albarracin indicates that using the second-person pronoun to provide [[self-suggestion]]s is more effective in promoting the intentions to carry out behaviors and performances.{{sfn|Dolcos|Albarracin|2014|pp=636–642}}

=== Self-concept and self-esteem ===
The self-concept plays a key role in intrapersonal communication. A person's self-concept is what they think and feel about themselves, for example, in relation to their appearance and attitudes as well as strengths and weaknesses.{{sfn|Steinberg|2007|p=142}}{{sfn|Wrench|Punyanunt-Carter|Thweatt|2020|loc=[https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/interpersonalcommunication/chapter/3/ 3. Intrapersonal Communication]}}{{sfn|Borgatta|Montgomery|2000|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/psychology/psychology-and-psychiatry/self-esteem Self-esteem]}} So seeing oneself as sincere, respectful, and thoughtful is one self-concept while seeing oneself as mean, abusive, and deceitful is another.{{sfn|Wrench|Punyanunt-Carter|Thweatt|2020|loc=[https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/interpersonalcommunication/chapter/3/ 3. Intrapersonal Communication]}} The terms "self-image" and "self-esteem" are sometimes used as synonyms but some theorists draw precise distinctions between them.{{sfn|Steinberg|2007|p=142}} According to [[Carl Rogers]], the self-concept has three parts: self-image, ideal self, and self-worth. [[Self-image]] concerns the properties that a person ascribes to themself. The ideal-self is the ideal the person strives toward or what they want to be like. Self-worth corresponds to whether they see themself overall as a good or a bad person.{{sfn|Wrench|Punyanunt-Carter|Thweatt|2020|loc=[https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/interpersonalcommunication/chapter/3/ 3. Intrapersonal Communication]}}

Many theorists use the term "self-esteem" instead of "self-worth".{{sfn|Thompson|2000|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/self-worth self-worth]}}{{sfn|Borgatta|Montgomery|2000|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/psychology/psychology-and-psychiatry/self-esteem Self-esteem]}} Self-esteem is a central aspect characterizing intrapersonal communication and refers to a person's subjective evaluation of their [[abilities]] and characteristics. As a subjective evaluation, it may differ from the facts and is often based mainly on an emotional outlook and less on a [[rational]] judgment.{{sfn|Wrench|Punyanunt-Carter|Thweatt|2020|loc=[https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/interpersonalcommunication/chapter/3/ 3. Intrapersonal Communication]}}{{sfn|Borgatta|Montgomery|2000|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/psychology/psychology-and-psychiatry/self-esteem Self-esteem]}} For example, some skilled people suffer from the imposter syndrome, which leads them to believe that they are imposters lacking the skills they actually have.{{sfn|Wrench|Punyanunt-Carter|Thweatt|2020|loc=[https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/interpersonalcommunication/chapter/3/ 3. Intrapersonal Communication]}} Self-esteem matters for mental health. Low self-esteem is linked to problems ranging from depression, loneliness, and [[Social alienation|alienation]] to [[drug abuse]] and [[teenage pregnancy]].{{sfn|Borgatta|Montgomery|2000|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/psychology/psychology-and-psychiatry/self-esteem Self-esteem]}} Self-esteem also affects how a person communicates with themself and others.{{sfn|Wrench|Punyanunt-Carter|Thweatt|2020|loc=[https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/interpersonalcommunication/chapter/3/ 3. Intrapersonal Communication]}}

The self is not a static or inborn entity but changes throughout life.{{sfn|Steinberg|2007|p=142}} Interactions with other people have an effect on the individual's self-image. This is especially true in relation to how they judge the person and when receiving positive or negative feedback on an important task.{{sfn|Wrench|Punyanunt-Carter|Thweatt|2020|loc=[https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/interpersonalcommunication/chapter/3/ 3. Intrapersonal Communication]}} Inner speech is strongly associated with a sense of self. The development of this sense in children is tied to the development of language.{{sfn|Cameron|2015}} There are, however, cases of an internal monologue or inner voice being considered external to the [[self]]. Examples are [[auditory hallucination]]s,{{sfn|Moseley|2014}} the conceptualization of negative or critical thoughts as an [[inner critic]], or a kind of [[interior locution|divine intervention]].{{sfn|Michal Beth Dinkler|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=D9rmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}}{{sfn|Nicky Hallett|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd-qCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 50]}} As a [[delusion]], this can be called "[[thought insertion]]".{{sfn|Martin|2013|pp=111–122}} A similar topic is discussed by Simon Jones and Charles Fernyhough, who explain cases of auditory verbal hallucinations as a form of inner speech. Auditory verbal hallucinations are cases in which a person hears speech without any external stimulation. On their view, speech is an inner [[Action (philosophy)|action]] controlled by the agent. But in some pathological cases, it is not recognized as an action. This leads to an auditory verbal hallucination since the voice is experienced as an external or alien element.{{sfn|Jones|Fernyhough|2007|pp=391–399}}