Editing Lithosphere (section)

== Mantle xenoliths ==
Geoscientists can directly study the nature of the subcontinental mantle by examining mantle [[xenolith]]s<ref>Nixon, P.H. (1987) ''Mantle xenoliths'' J. Wiley & Sons, 844 p. {{ISBN|0-471-91209-3}}</ref> brought up in [[kimberlite]], [[lamproite]], and other [[volcanic pipe]]s. The histories of these xenoliths have been investigated by many methods, including analyses of abundances of isotopes of [[osmium]] and [[rhenium]]. Such studies have confirmed that mantle lithospheres below some cratons have persisted for periods in excess of 3 billion years, despite the mantle flow that accompanies plate tectonics.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1029/2004RG000156|title=Physical, chemical, and chronological characteristics of continental mantle|date=2005|last1=Carlson|first1=Richard W.|journal=[[Reviews of Geophysics]]|volume=43|issue=1|pages=RG1001|bibcode=2005RvGeo..43.1001C|doi-access=free}}</ref>