Editing Mathura (section)

===Medieval History and Islamic Invasions===

====Early Middle Ages====
The famous female [[Alvars|Alvar]] saint, [[Andal]] visualised going to a pilgrimage which began at Mathura, then proceeded to [[Gokul]], the [[Yamuna]], the pool of Kaliya, [[Vrindavan]], [[Govardhan]], and finished at [[Dwarka]].<ref>{{cite book |author= Friedhelm Hardy |date=2001 |title=Viraha-bhakti: The Early History of Kṛṣṇa Devotion in South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=spZdOwAACAAJ |publisher=Oxford University Press, Varanasi |page=424 |isbn=978-0195649161}}</ref> The eleventh century Kashmiri poet, [[Bilhana]] visited Mathura and [[Vrindavan]] after leaving Kashmir en route to Karnataka.<ref>{{cite book |author= (trans.) Georg Bühler |date=1875 |title=The Vikramânkadevacharita, a life of King Vikramâditya – Tribhuvanamalla of Kalyâna by Bilhana|url=https://archive.org/details/vikramnkadevacha00bilh/page/18/mode/2up |page=18|publisher=Bombay, Government central book depôt }}</ref>

====High Middle Ages====
The city was sacked and many of its temples destroyed by [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] in 1018 CE.<ref name=EB1911/> The capture of Mathura by [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Maḥmūd Ibn Sebüktegīn]] is described by the historian al-Utbi (Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad al Jabbaru-l 'Utbi) in his work [[Tarikh Yamini]] as follows:

{{Blockquote|The wall of the city was constructed of hard stone, and two gates opened upon the river flowing under the city, which were erected upon strong and lofty foundations, to protect them against the floods of the river and rains. On both sides of the city there were a thousand houses, to which idol temples were attached, all strengthened from top to bottom by rivets of iron, and all made of masonry work; and opposite to them were other buildings, supported on broad wooden pillars, to give them strength.}}

{{Blockquote|In the middle of the city there was a temple larger and firmer than the rest, which can neither be described nor painted. The Sultan thus wrote respecting it :— " If any should wish to construct a building equal to this, he would not be able to do it without expending an hundred thousand thousand red dinars, and it would occupy two hundred years, even though the most experienced and able workmen were employed." Among the idols there were five made of red gold, each five yards high, fixed in the air without support. In the eyes of one of these idols there were two rubies, of such value, that if any one were to sell such as are like them, he would obtain fifty thousand dinars. On another, there was a sapphire purer than water, and more sparkling than crystal; the weight was four hundred and fifty miskals. The two feet of another idol weighed four thousand four hundred miskals, and the entire quantity of gold yielded by the bodies of these idols, was ninety-eight thousand three hundred miskals. The idols of silver amounted to two hundred, but they could not be weighed without breaking them to pieces and putting them into scales. The Sultan gave orders that all the temples should be burnt with naphtha and fire, and levelled with the ground.<ref>{{cite book |author= Sir Henry Miers Elliot & John Dowson |date= 1867|title=The History of India, as told by its own Historians Volume 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindiaas02elli/page/n61/mode/2up |pages=44–45}}</ref>}}

The temple at Katra was sacked by [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Maḥmūd Ibn Sebüktegīn]]. A temple was built to replace it in 1150 CE. The Mathura ''prasasti'' (Eulogistic Inscription) dated [[Vikram Samvat|Samvat (V.S.)]] 1207 (1150 CE), said to have been found in 1889 CE at the Keshava mound by [[Alois Anton Führer|Anton Fuhrer]], German Indologist who worked with the Archaeological Survey of India, recorded the foundations of a temple dedicated to [[Vishnu]] at the Katra site:

{{Blockquote|Jajja, who carried the burden of the varga, together with a committee of trustees (goshtijana), built a large temple of Vishnu, brilliantly white and touching the clouds.}}

Jajja was a vassal of the [[Gahadavala dynasty|Gahadavalas]] in charge of Mathura, and the committee mentioned in the ''prasasti'' could have been of an earlier [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] temple.<ref>{{cite book |author=Meenakshi Jain |date=2019 |title=Flight of Deities and Rebirth of Temples: Episodes from Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lAQNxQEACAAJ |publisher=Aryan Books International |page=67 |isbn=978-8173056192}}</ref> The temple built by Jajja at Katra was destroyed by the forces of [[Qutb al-Din Aibak|Qutubuddin Aibak]], though [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Feroz Tughlaq]] (r. 1351–88 CE) was also said to have attacked it.<ref>{{cite book |author=Meenakshi Jain |date=2019 |title=Flight of Deities and Rebirth of Temples: Episodes from Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lAQNxQEACAAJ |publisher=Aryan Books International |page=68 |isbn=978-8173056192}}</ref> It was repaired and survived till the reign of [[Sikandar Lodi]] (r. 1489–1517 CE).

In the twelfth century, Bhatta Lakshmidhara, chief minister of the [[Gahadavala dynasty|Gahadavala]] king [[Govindachandra (Gahadavala dynasty)|Govindachandra]] (r. 1114–1155 CE), wrote the earliest surviving collection of verses in praise of the sacred sites of Mathura in his work Krtyakalpataru, which has been described as "the first re-statement of the theory of ''Tirtha-yatra'' (pilgrimage)".<ref>{{cite book |author=K.V. Rangaswami Aiyangar |date=1942 |title=Krtyakalpataru of Bhatta Lakshmidhara, Vol.8 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.11502/page/n89/mode/2up |publisher=Oriental Institute, Baroda |page=lxxxvii–lxxxviii}}</ref> In his Krtyakalpataru, Bhatta Lakshmidhara devoted an entire section (9) to Mathura.<ref>{{cite book |author=K.V. Rangaswami Aiyangar |date=1942 |title=Krtyakalpataru of Bhatta Lakshmidhara, Vol.8 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.11502/page/n279/mode/2up |publisher=Oriental Institute, Baroda |page=१८६-१९४ (186–194)}}</ref>

Later on the city was sacked again by Sikandar Lodi, who ruled the [[Sultanate of Delhi]] from 1489 to 1517 CE.<ref>[http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D03601021%26ct%3D94 Sultan Sikandar Lodi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304113007/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D03601021%26ct%3D94 |date=4 March 2016 }} ''The Muntakhabu-'rūkh'' by [[Al-Badauni|Al-Badāoni]] (16th-century historian), [[Packard Humanities Institute]].</ref><ref>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V02_404.gif Lodi Kings: Chart] [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]], 1909, v. 2, ''p. 369.''.</ref> Sikandar Lodi earned the epithet of 'Butt Shikan', the 'Destroyer of Idols'. [[Firishta|Ferishta]] recorded that Sikandar Lodi was a staunch Muslim, with a passion for vandalising heathen temples:

{{Blockquote|He was firmly attached to the Mahomedan religion, and made a point of destroying all Hindu temples. In the city of Mathura he caused masjids and bazaars to be built opposite the bathing-stairs leading to the river, and ordered that no Hindus should be allowed to bathe there. He forbade the barbers to shave the beards and heads of the inhabitants, in order to prevent the Hindus following their usual practices at such pilgrimages.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Briggs |date=1908 |title=History of the rise of the Mahomedan power in India till the year A.D. 1612 Volume 1|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofriseofm01feri_0/page/586/mode/2up |page=586}}</ref>}}

In Tarikh-i Daudi, of 'Abdu-lla (written during the time of [[Jahangir]]) said of Sikandar Lodi:

{{Blockquote|He was so zealous a Musulman that he utterly destroyed divers places of worship of the infidels, and left not a vestige remaining of them. He entirely ruined the shrines of Mathura, the mine of heathenism, and turned their principal Hindu places of worship into caravanserais and colleges. Their stone images were given to the butchers to serve them as meat-weights, and all the Hindus in Mathura were strictly prohibited from shaving their heads and beards, and performing their ablutions. He thus put an end to all the idolatrous rites of the infidels there; and no Hindu, if he wished to have his head or beard shaved, could get a barber to do it. Every city thus conformed as he desired to the customs of Islam.<ref>{{cite book |author=Sir H.M. Elliot & John Dowson |date=1873 |title=History of India, as told by its own Historians: the Muhammadan period Vol.4 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.5329/page/n453/mode/2up |page=447}}</ref>}}

[[Vallabha]]charya and [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] arrived in the Braj region, in search of sacred places that had been destroyed or lost. In ''Shrikrsnashrayah'', that make up the ''Sodashagrantha'', [[Vallabha]] said of his age:

{{Blockquote|The Malechchhas (non-Hindus in this context) have surrounded all the holy places with the result that they have become infected with evil. Besides, the holy people are full of sorrow. At such a time [[Krishna]] alone is my way.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Barz |title=Bhakti Sect Of Vallabhacarya |url=https://archive.org/details/bhaktisectofvallabhacaryarichardbarzmrmlms_202003_574_W/page/n23/mode/2up |year=1992 |publisher=Motilal UK Books of India |isbn=978-8121505765 |pages=16}}</ref>}}

====Late Middle Ages====

The [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], Father Antonio Monserrate (1536 CE-1600 CE), who was on a Jesuit mission at the Mughal Court during the times of [[Akbar]], visited Mathura in 1580–82, and noted that all temples built at sites associated with the deeds of [[Krishna]] were in ruins:-

{{Blockquote|It (Mathura) used to be a great and well populated city, with splendid buildings and a great circuit of walls. The ruins plainly indicate how imposing its buildings were. For out of these forgotten ruins are dug up columns and very ancient statues, of skilful and cunning workmanship. Only one Hindu temple is left out of many; for the Musalmans have completely destroyed all except the pyramids. Huge crowds of pilgrims come from all over India to this temple, which is situated on the high bank of the Jomanis ([[Yamuna]])...<ref>{{cite book |author= J. S. Hoyland (trans.), S. N. Banerjee (annotator) |title=Commentary of Father Monserrate |date=1922 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=93 |url=https://archive.org/details/commentaryoffath00mons/page/92/mode/2up}}</ref>}}

The [[Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex|Keshavadeva temple]] was rebuilt by the [[Bundela]] Rajput Rajah [[Vir Singh Deo]] at a cost of thirty-three lakh rupees when the gold was priced at around ₹ 10/- per [[Tola (unit)|''tola'']].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sdbullion.com/gold-price-history |title=Historical Gold Prices |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=sdbullion.com |access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref> And the grand structure of the temple in Mathura was regarded a "wonder of the age".<ref>{{cite book |author=Jadunath Sarkar |date=1928 |title=History Of Aurangzib Vol.3 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.111047/page/n279/mode/2up |page=266}}</ref>

The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Aurangzeb|Emperor Aurangzeb]], built the Shahi-Eidgah Mosque during his rule, which is adjacent to [[Shri Krishna Janmabhoomi]] believed to be over a [[Hindu temple]].<ref>{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3ctLNvx68hIC&q=akbar%27s+tomb+desecrated+by+jats&pg=PA108 | title = Architecture of Mughal India | isbn = 9780521267281 | last1 = Asher | first1 = Catherine B | date = 24 September 1992 | publisher = Cambridge University Press }}</ref> He also changed the city's name to Islamabad.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael H. |title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-11162-2 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |language=en}}</ref> In 1669, Aurangzeb issued a general order for the demolition of Hindu schools and temples, in 1670, specifically ordered the destruction of the Keshavadeva temple. Saqi Mustaid Khan recorded:

{{Blockquote|On Thursday, 27th January/15 Ramzan (27 January 1670)... the Emperor as the promoter of justice and overthrower of mischief, as a knower of truth and destroyer of oppression as the zephyr of the garden of victory and the reviver of the faith of the Prophet, issued orders for the demolition of the temple situated in Mathura, famous as the Dehra of Kesho Rai. In a short time by the great exertions of his officers, the destruction of this strong foundation of infidelity was accomplished and on its site a lofty mosque was built by the expenditure of a large sum... Praised be the august God of the faith of Islam, that in the auspicious reign of this destroyer of infidelity and turbulence, such a wonderful and seemingly impossible work was successfully accomplished.}}

{{Blockquote|On seeing this instance of the strength of the emperor's faith and the grandeur of his devotion to God, the proud Rajas were stifled, and in amazement they stood like images facing the wall. The idols, large and small, set with costly jewels, which had been set up in the temple, were brought to Agra, and buried under the step of the mosque of the Begum Shahib in order to be continuously trodden upon. The name of Mathura was changed to Islamabad.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jadunath Sarkar |date=1947 |title=Maasir-i-Alamgiri, A History Of Emperor Aurangzeb by Saqi Mustaid Khan |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryofemporeraurangzebalamgirmaasirialamgirijadunathsarkar_64_c/page/n67/mode/2up |page=60}}</ref>}}

The Muslim conquest resulted in the destruction of all [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Jainism|Jain]], and [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temples and monuments in and around Mathura. [[Buddhism]], already in decline, never revived, and for the next four hundred years the [[Jainism|Jains]] and [[Hindus]] were unable to erect any temples that were not sooner or later demolished.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |author=A. W. Entwistle |date=1987 |title=Braj: Centre of Krishna Pilgrimage |url=https://digital.soas.ac.uk/content/AA/00/00/03/01/00001/PDF_TXT.pdf |publisher=Egbert Forsten Publishing |pages=122–124 |isbn=978-9069800165}}</ref> Many of the sites that had been places of religious importance were abandoned and gradually sank beneath the earth. But some of them were not forgotten, owing to the persistence of oral tradition, the refashioning of a temple into a mosque, or the presence of humble shrines, some of which housed sculptural fragments of earlier buildings. Several of them have survived as places of significance in the modern pilgrimage circuit.<ref name="auto"/>

"The rebellion in Mathurá district seems to have gained ground. 'On the 14th Rajab, 1080, [28 November 1669], his Majesty left Dihlí for Akbarábád, and almost daily enjoyed the pleasures of the chase. On the 21st Rajab, whilst hunting, he received the report of a rebellion having broken out at Mauza' Rewarah, Chandarkah, and Surkhrú. Hasan 'Ali Khán was ordered to attack the rebels at night, which he did, and the firing lasted till 12 o'clock the next day. The rebels, unable longer to withstand, thinking of the honour of their families, now fought with short arms, and many imperial soldiers and companions of Hasan ’Alí were killed. Three hundred rebels were sent to perdition, and two hundred and fifty, men and women, caught. Hasan ’Alí, in the afternoon, reported personally the result of the fight, and was ordered to leave the prisoners and the cattle in charge of Sayyid Zain ul-'Abidin, the jágirdár of the place. Çaf Shikan Khán also (who after ’Abdunnabí's death had been appointed Faujdár of Mathura) waited on the emperor, and was ordered to tell off two hundred troopers to guard the fields attached to the villages, and prevent soldiers from plundering and kidnapping children. Námdár Khán, Faujdár of Murádábád, also came to pay his respects. Çafshikan Khán was removed from his office, and Hasan 'Ali Khán was appointed Faujdár of Mathura, with a command of Three Thousand and Five Hundred, 2000 troopers, and received a dress of honour, a sword, and a horse. * * * On the 18th Sha'bán [1st January, 1670), his Majesty entered Agrah. Kokilá Ját, the wicked ringleader of the rebels of District*......, who had been the cause of ’Abdunnabí's death and who had plundered Parganah Sa'dábád, was at last caught by Hasan ’Alí Khán and his zealous peshkár, Shaikh Razíuddin, and he was now sent with the Shaikh to Agrah, where by order of his Majesty he was executed. Kokila's son and daughter were given to Jawahir Khán Nazir [a eunuch]. The girl was later married to Shah Quli, the well-known Chelah; and his son, who was called Fázil, became in time so excellent a Hafiz [one who knows the Qorán by heart], that his Majesty preferred him to all others and even chaunted passages to him. Shaikh Razíuddin, who had captured Kokila, belonged to a respectable family in Bhagalpur, Bihár, and was an excellent soldier, administrator, and companion; he was at the same time so learned, that he was ordered to assist in the compilation of the Fatáwá i 'Alamgiri [the great code of Muhammadan laws]. He received a daily allowance of three rupees.'+ (Haásir i ’Alamgiri, pp. 92 to 91.) Hasan ’Alí Khán retained his office from 1080 to Sha'bán 1087 (October, 1676), when Sulțán Qulí Khán was appointed Faujdír of Mathurá.", [[Asiatic Society of Bengal]], ''Proceedings''<ref>{{cite book |author=Asiatic Society of Bengal |title=Proceedings|date=1873|publisher=Government Press, North-western Provinces and Oudh |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lX8bAQAAIAAJ&q=jawahir+ali+eunuch&pg=PA14}}</ref>