Editing Motivation (section)

== Types ==
Many different types of motivation are discussed in the academic literature. They differ from each other based on the underlying mechanisms responsible for their manifestation, what goals are pursued, what temporal horizon they encompass, and who is intended to benefit.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ryan|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hNShDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 98]}} |2={{harvnb|Silverthorne|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5DAQkVwgKBQC&pg=PA99 99–100]}} |3={{harvnb|Merrick|Maher|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JaYOjNi7ZkkC&pg=PA19 19–20]}} |4={{harvnb|Warren|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QblYAjpClWAC&pg=PA32 32]}} }}</ref>

=== Intrinsic and extrinsic ===
[[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|thumb|alt=Image of two boys playing soccer|Intrinsic motivation arises from internal factors, like enjoying an activity. Extrinsic motivation is based on external factors, like rewards obtained by completing an activity.]]
The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is based on the source or origin of the motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual, who engages in an activity out of enjoyment, curiosity, or a sense of fulfillment. It occurs when people pursue an activity for its own sake. It can be due to affective factors, when the person engages in the behavior because it feels good, or cognitive factors, when they see it as something good or meaningful.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Silverthorne|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5DAQkVwgKBQC&pg=PA99 99–100]}} |2={{harvnb|VandenBos|2015|p=560}} }}</ref> An example of intrinsic motivation is a person who plays basketball during lunch break only because they enjoy it.<ref name="auto"/>

Extrinsic motivation arises from external factors, such as rewards, punishments, or [[Recognition (sociology)|recognition]] from others. This occurs when people engage in an activity because they are interested in the effects or the outcome of the activity rather than in the activity itself.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Silverthorne|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5DAQkVwgKBQC&pg=PA99 99–100]}} |2={{harvnb|VandenBos|2015|p=430}} }}</ref> For instance, if a student does their homework because they are afraid of being punished by their parents then extrinsic motivation is responsible.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ryan|Deci|2000|pp=54–55}} |2={{harvnb|Brehm|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lYOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 132]}} }}</ref>

Intrinsic motivation is often more highly regarded than extrinsic motivation. It is associated with genuine passion, [[creativity]], a sense of purpose, and personal [[autonomy]]. It also tends to come with stronger commitment and persistence. Intrinsic motivation is a key factor in cognitive, social, and physical development.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ryan|Deci|2000|p=56}} |2={{harvnb|Brehm|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lYOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 131]}} }}</ref> The degree of intrinsic motivation is affected by various conditions, including a sense of autonomy and positive feedback from others.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ryan|Deci|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=th5rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 129]}} | {{harvnb|Chiviacowsky|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wYVsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT68 68]}} | {{harvnb|Ryan|Deci|2000a|p=70}} }}</ref> In the field of education, intrinsic motivation tends to result in high-quality learning.<ref>{{harvnb|Ryan|Deci|2000|pp=54–55}}</ref> However, there are also certain advantages to extrinsic motivation: it can provide people with motivation to engage in useful or necessary tasks which they do not naturally find interesting or enjoyable.<ref>{{harvnb|Ryan|Deci|2000|pp=61–62}}</ref> Some theorists understand the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as a spectrum rather than a clear dichotomy. This is linked to the idea that the more autonomous an activity is, the more it is associated with intrinsic motivation.<ref name="auto"/>

A behavior can be motivated only by intrinsic motives, only by extrinsic motives, or by a combination of both. In the latter case, there are both internal and external reasons why the person engages in the behavior. If both are present, they may work against each other. For example, the presence of a strong extrinsic motivation, like a high monetary reward, can decrease intrinsic motivation. Because of this, the individual may be less likely to further engage in the activity if it does not result in an external reward anymore. However, this is not always the case and under the right circumstances, the combined effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation leads to higher performance.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Silverthorne|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5DAQkVwgKBQC&pg=PA100 100–101]}} |2={{harvnb|Deckers|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wFgPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA334 334]}} }}</ref>

=== Conscious and unconscious ===
Conscious motivation involves motives of which the person is aware. It includes the explicit recognition of goals and underlying values. Conscious motivation is associated with the formulation of a goal and a plan to realize it as well as its controlled step-by-step execution. Some theorists emphasize the role of the self in this process as the entity that plans, initiates, regulates, and evaluates behavior.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Fiske|Gilbert|Lindzey|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=W3aznFeYHc8C&pg=PA288 288]}} |2={{harvnb|McClelland|1988|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/human-motivation/conscious-and-unconscious-motives/A1924F59E13A3A849BC9AB57DB803279 11–12]|loc=Conscious and Unconscious Motives}} }}</ref> An example of conscious motivation is a person in a clothing store who states that they want to buy a shirt and then goes on to buy one.<ref>{{harvnb|McClelland|1988|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/human-motivation/conscious-and-unconscious-motives/A1924F59E13A3A849BC9AB57DB803279 6]|loc=Conscious and Unconscious Motives}}</ref>

[[File:Sigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|alt=Photo of Sigmund Freud|Unconscious motivation plays a central role in [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]].]]
Unconscious motivation involves motives of which the person is not aware. It can be guided by deep-rooted beliefs, desires, and feelings operating beneath the level of consciousness. Examples include the unacknowledged influences of past experiences, unresolved conflicts, hidden fears, and [[defense mechanisms]]. These influences can affect decisions, impact behavior, and shape habits.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Silva|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-RW_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72]}} |2={{harvnb|Fiske|Gilbert|Lindzey|2010|pp=288}} |3={{harvnb|McClelland|1988|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/human-motivation/conscious-and-unconscious-motives/A1924F59E13A3A849BC9AB57DB803279 15–16]|loc=Conscious and Unconscious Motives}} }}</ref> An example of unconscious motivation is a scientist who believes that their research effort is a pure expression of their altruistic desire to benefit science while their true motive is an unacknowledged need for fame.<ref>{{harvnb|McClelland|1988|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/human-motivation/conscious-and-unconscious-motives/A1924F59E13A3A849BC9AB57DB803279 15–16]|loc=Conscious and Unconscious Motives}}</ref> External circumstances can also impact the motivation underlying unconscious behavior. An example is the effect of [[Priming (psychology)|priming]], in which an earlier stimulus influences the response to a later stimulus without the person's awareness of this influence.<ref name="auto7">{{harvnb|Fiske|Gilbert|Lindzey|2010|pp=288}}</ref> Unconscious motivation is a central topic in [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Silva|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-RW_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72]}} |2={{harvnb|McClelland|1988|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/human-motivation/conscious-and-unconscious-motives/A1924F59E13A3A849BC9AB57DB803279 5]|loc=Conscious and Unconscious Motives}} }}</ref>

Early theories of motivation often assumed that conscious motivation is the primary form of motivation. However, this view has been challenged in the subsequent literature and there is no academic consensus on the relative extent of their influence.
<ref name="auto7"/>

=== Rational and irrational ===
Closely related to the contrast between conscious and unconscious motivation is the distinction between rational and irrational motivation. A motivational state is rational if it is based on a good reason. This implies that the motive of the behavior explains why the person should engage in the behavior. In this case, the person has an insight into why the behavior is considered valuable. For example, if a person saves a drowning child because they value the child's life, then their motivation is rational.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Harold|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yvBFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 111–112]}} |2={{harvnb|Santis|Trizio|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XKU5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT152 152–153]}} }}</ref>

Rational motivation contrasts with irrational motivation, in which the person has no good reason that explains the behavior. In this case, the person lacks a clear understanding of the deeper source of motivation and in what sense the behavior is in tune with their values.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Santis|Trizio|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XKU5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT152 152–153]}} |2={{harvnb|Hamlin|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fqSBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73]}} }}</ref> This can be the case for [[impulsive behavior]], for example, when a person spontaneously acts out of anger without reflecting on the consequences of their actions.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Rubinstein|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Za3JLEIHu8YC&pg=PA21 21]}} |2={{harvnb|Hamlin|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fqSBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73]}} }}</ref>

Rational and irrational motivation play a key role in the field of economics. In order to predict the behavior of [[economic actor]]s, it is often assumed that they act rationally. In this field, rational behavior is understood as behavior that is in tune with self-interest while irrational behavior goes against self-interest.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Carbaugh|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=POY4CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} |2={{harvnb|Hutton|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ml943dHipRYC&pg=PT23 23]}} |3={{harvnb|Kingsbury|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LnYSW4jjcWQC&pg=PA25 25]}} |4={{harvnb|Sobel|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WGF2AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15]}} }}</ref> For example, based on the assumption that it is in the self-interest of firms to maximize profit, actions that lead to that outcome are considered rational while actions that impede [[profit maximization]] are considered irrational.<ref>{{harvnb|Mastrianna|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vQsLAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8]}}</ref> However, when understood in a wider sense, rational motivation is a broader term that also includes behavior motivated by a desire to benefit others as a form of rational altruism.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kingsbury|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LnYSW4jjcWQC&pg=PA25 25]}} |2={{harvnb|Greve|Lægreid|Rykkja|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XcLeDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 83]}} }}</ref>

=== Biological and cognitive ===
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|footer            = Hunger and thirst are physiological needs associated with biological motivation while the artistic pursuit of beauty belongs to cognitive motivation.
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Biological motivation concerns motives that arise due to [[physiological needs]]. Examples are hunger, thirst, sex, and the need for sleep. They are also referred to as primary, physiological, or organic motives.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|VandenBos|2015|p=670}} |2={{harvnb|Hagger|Chatzisarantis|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hieFlYy4HIYC&pg=PA99 99–101]}} |3={{harvnb|Merrick|Maher|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JaYOjNi7ZkkC&pg=PA19 19–20]}} }}</ref> Biological motivation is associated with states of arousal and [[emotional]] changes.<ref>{{harvnb|Cofer|Petri|2023|loc=[https://www.britannica.com/topic/motivation/Motivation-as-arousal §Motivation as Arousal]}}</ref> Its source lies in innate mechanisms that govern stimulus-response patterns.<ref>{{harvnb|Kotesky|1979|pp=3–4}}</ref>

Cognitive motivation concerns motives that arise from the psychological level. They include affiliation, competition, personal interests, and [[self-actualization]] as well as desires for perfection, justice, beauty, and truth. They are also called secondary, psychological, social, or personal motives. They are often seen as a higher or more refined form of motivation.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|VandenBos|2015|p=670}} |2={{harvnb|Hagger|Chatzisarantis|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hieFlYy4HIYC&pg=PA99 99–101]}} |3={{harvnb|Merrick|Maher|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JaYOjNi7ZkkC&pg=PA19 19–20]}} |4={{harvnb|Kotesky|1979|p=9}} }}</ref> The processing and interpretation of information play a key role in cognitive motivation. Cognitively motivated behavior is not an innate reflex but a flexible response to the available information that is based on past experiences and expected outcomes.<ref>{{harvnb|Cofer|Petri|2023|loc=[https://www.britannica.com/topic/motivation/Observational-learning#ref12707 §Cognitive motivation]}}</ref> It is associated with the explicit formulation of desired outcomes and engagement in goal-directed behavior to realize these outcomes.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hagger|Chatzisarantis|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hieFlYy4HIYC&pg=PA99 99–101]}} |2={{harvnb|Merrick|Maher|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JaYOjNi7ZkkC&pg=PA19 19–20]}} }}</ref>

Some theories of human motivation see biological causes as the source of all motivation. They tend to conceptualize human behavior in analogy to animal behavior. Other theories allow for both biological and cognitive motivation and some put their main emphasis on cognitive motivation.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hagger|Chatzisarantis|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hieFlYy4HIYC&pg=PA99 99–101]}} |2={{harvnb|Merrick|Maher|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JaYOjNi7ZkkC&pg=PA19 19–20]}} |3={{harvnb|Cofer|Petri|2023|loc=[https://www.britannica.com/topic/motivation/Motivation-as-arousal §Motivation as Arousal, §Cognitive motivation]}} |4={{harvnb|Kotesky|1979|p=3}} }}</ref>

=== Short-term and long-term ===
Short-term and long-term motivation differ in regard to the temporal horizon and the duration of the underlying motivational mechanism. Short-term motivation is focused on achieving rewards immediately or in the near future. It is associated with impulsive behavior. It is a transient and fluctuating phenomenon that may arise and subside spontaneously.<ref name="auto2">{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Warren|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QblYAjpClWAC&pg=PA32 32]}} |2={{harvnb|Shabbir|Ayub|Khan|Davis|2021|pp=[https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/ITSE-09-2020-0207/full/html 535–536]}} }}</ref>

Long-term motivation involves a sustained commitment to goals in a more distant future. It encompasses a willingness to invest time and effort over an extended period before the intended goal is reached. It is often a more deliberative process that requires goal-setting and planning.<ref name="auto2"/>

Both short-term and long-term motivation are relevant to achieving one's goals.<ref name="auto4">{{harvnb|Warren|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QblYAjpClWAC&pg=PA32 32]}}</ref> For example, short-term motivation is central when responding to urgent problems while long-term motivation is a key factor in pursuing far-reaching objectives.<ref>{{harvnb|Shabbir|Ayub|Khan|Davis|2021|pp=[https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/ITSE-09-2020-0207/full/html 535–536]}}</ref> However, they sometimes conflict with each other by supporting opposing courses of action.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dryden|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lpAtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 99–100]}} |2={{harvnb|Boyle|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tzc7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT232 232]}} }}</ref> An example is a married person who is tempted to have a one-night stand. In this case, there may be a clash between the short-term motivation to seek immediate physical gratification and the long-term motivation to preserve and nurture a successful marriage built on trust and commitment.<ref>{{harvnb|Dryden|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lpAtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 99–100]}}</ref> Another example is the long-term motivation to stay healthy in contrast to the short-term motivation to smoke a cigarette.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tzc7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT232 232]}}</ref>

=== Egoistic and altruistic ===
The difference between egoistic and altruistic motivation concerns who is intended to benefit from the anticipated course of action. Egoistic motivation is driven by self-interest: the person is acting for their own benefit or to fulfill their own needs and desires. This self-interest can take various forms, including immediate [[pleasure]], career advancement, financial rewards, and gaining respect from others.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Miller|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FfUvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 13–16]}} |2={{harvnb|Batson|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KI57AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–3, 5–8]}} }}</ref>

Altruistic motivation is marked by selfless intentions and involves a genuine concern for the [[well-being]] of others. It is associated with the desire to assist and help others in a non-transactional manner without the goal of obtaining personal gain or rewards in return.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Miller|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FfUvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 13–16]}} |2={{harvnb|Batson|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KI57AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–3, 5–8]}} |3={{harvnb|Berkowitz|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xFc1oeDgOZ0C&pg=PA75 75]}} }}</ref>

According to the controversial thesis of [[psychological egoism]], there is no altruistic motivation: all motivation is egoistic. Proponents of this view hold that even apparently altruistic behavior is caused by egoistic motives. For example, they may claim that people feel good about helping other people and that their egoistic desire to feel good is the true internal motivation behind the externally altruistic behavior.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Miller|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FfUvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 13–16]}} |2={{harvnb|Batson|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KI57AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2–3]}} |3={{harvnb|Gabard|Martin|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2RVhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 23]}} }}</ref>

Many religions emphasize the importance of altruistic motivation as a component of religious practice.<ref>{{harvnb|Clarke|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JF30DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA876 876–877]}}</ref> For example, [[Christianity]] sees selfless love and compassion as a way of realizing God's will and bringing about a better world.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Clarke|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JF30DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA876 876–877]}} |2={{harvnb|Peckham|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a4RbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA134 134–135]}} }}</ref> [[Buddhists]] emphasize the practice of [[Maitrī|loving-kindness]] toward all sentient beings as a means to eliminate [[Duḥkha|suffering]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Neusner|Chilton|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wy-6HiyApXsC&pg=PA88 88]}} |2={{harvnb|Trainor|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_PrloTKuAjwC&pg=PA64 64]}} }}</ref>

=== Others ===
Many other types of motivation are discussed in the academic literature. Moral motivation is closely related to altruistic motivation. Its motive is to act in tune with moral judgments and it can be characterized as the willingness to "do the right thing".<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Wallace|1998|loc=lead section}} |2={{harvnb|Rosati|2016|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-motivation/ lead section]}} |3={{harvnb|Steinberg|2020|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-45680-1_11 139–140]|loc=Moral Motivation}} }}</ref> The desire to visit a sick friend to keep a promise is an example of moral motivation. It can conflict with other forms of motivation, like the desire to go to the movies instead.<ref>{{harvnb|Kurtines|Azmitia|Gewirtz|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lDAWy9fvfNgC&pg=PA231 231]}}</ref> An influential debate in moral philosophy centers around the question of whether moral judgments can directly provide moral motivation, as [[Internalism and externalism#Moral philosophy|internalists]] claim. Externalists provide an alternative explanation by holding that additional mental states, like desires or emotions, are needed. Externalists hold that these additional states do not always accompany moral judgments, meaning that it would be possible to have moral judgments without a moral motivation to follow them.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Rosati|2016|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-motivation/ §3.2 Internalism v. Externalism]}} |2={{harvnb|Wallace|1998|loc=lead section}} |3={{harvnb|Steinberg|2020|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-45680-1_11 139–140]|loc=Moral Motivation}} }}</ref> Certain forms of [[psychopathy]] and brain damage can inhibit moral motivation.<ref>{{harvnb|Steinberg|2020|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-45680-1_11 139–140]|loc=Moral Motivation}}</ref>

Self-determination theorists, such as [[Edward Deci]] and [[Richard Ryan (professor)|Richard Ryan]], distinguish between autonomous and controlled motivation. Autonomous motivation is associated with acting according to one's free will or doing something because one wants to do it. In the case of controlled motivation, the person feels pressured into doing something by external forces.<ref name="auto"/>

A related contrast is between push and pull motivation. Push motivation arises from unfulfilled internal needs and aims at satisfying them. For example, hunger may push an individual to find something to eat. Pull motivation arises from an external goal and aims at achieving this goal, like the motivation to get a university degree.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Deckers|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=62hjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1991 1991]}} |2={{harvnb|Funk|Alexandris|McDonald|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_cJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}} |3={{harvnb|Cofer|Petri|2023|loc=lead section}} }}</ref>

[[Achievement motivation]] is the desire to overcome obstacles and strive for excellence. Its goal is to do things well and become better even in the absence of tangible external rewards. It is closely related to the [[fear of failure]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Sorrentino|Yamaguchi|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=P_yt3KPT-MQC&pg=PA105 105]}} |2={{harvnb|Hsieh|2011|pp=[https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_31 20–21]|loc=Achievement Motivation}} }}</ref> An example of achievement motivation in sports is a person who challenges stronger opponents in an attempt to get better.<ref>{{harvnb|Hill|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1LSRjs0v5_QC&pg=PA251 251]}}</ref>

Human motivation is sometimes contrasted with animal motivation. The field of animal motivation examines the reasons and mechanisms underlying animal behavior. It belongs to psychology and [[zoology]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Colgan|1989|p=vii}} |2={{harvnb|Messer|Messer|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H0OIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} }}</ref> It gives specific emphasis to the interplay of external stimulation and internal states. It further considers how an animal benefits from a certain behavior as an individual and in terms of evolution.<ref>{{harvnb|Colgan|1989|pp=vii, 1–2}}</ref> There are important overlaps between the fields of animal and human motivation. Studies on animal motivation tend to focus more on the role of external stimuli and instinctive responses while the role of free decisions and [[delayed gratification]] has a more prominent place when discussing human motivation.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Wagner|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aWkQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT22 22]}} |2={{harvnb|Guillen|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mzX7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT192 192]}} |3={{harvnb|Messer|Messer|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H0OIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} }}</ref>