Editing Muhammad ibn al-Qasim (section)

==Conquest of valley of Sindh==
[[File:Sindh campaigns 711-715 CE.png|thumb|300px|right|Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's conquest of Sindh (711-715 CE).<br>
{{legend|yellow|Desert areas ([[Registan Desert]] and [[Thar Desert]])}}
{{legend|#FFD700|[[Zunbils]]}}
{{legend|#DEB887|Kingdom of Sindh (c. 632– 712 CE)}}
{{legend|#7FFF00|[[Maitraka dynasty|Maitraka Kingdom]] (c.475–c.776 CE)}}
]]
Hajjaj had put more care and planning into this campaign than the second campaign.<ref name="2004Wink1"/> Al-Hajjaj gave Muhammad ibn al-Qasim command of the expedition between 708 and 711, when he was only 15–17 years old, apparently because two previous Umayyad commanders had not been successful in punishing Sindh's ruler [[Raja Dahir]] for his failure to prevent pirates from disrupting Muslim shipping off the coast of Sindh.{{sfn|Friedmann|1993|p=405}} Al-Hajjaj superintended this campaign from [[Kufa]] by maintaining close contact with Muhammad ibn al-Qasim in the form of regular reports for which purpose special messengers were deputed between [[Basra]] and [[Sindh]].<ref name="2004Wink1"/> The army which departed from Shiraz under Muhammad ibn al-Qasim consisted of 6,000 [[Bilad al-Sham|Syria]]n cavalry and detachments of ''[[mawali]]'' (sing. ''mawla''; non-Arab, Muslim freedmen) from Iraq.<ref name="2004Wink1"/> At the borders of Sindh he was joined by an advance guard and six thousand camel cavalry and later, reinforcements from the governor of Makran were transferred directly to [[Debal]] (Daybul), at the mouth of the Indus, by sea along with five ''manjaniks'' (catapults).<ref name="2004Wink1"/> The army that eventually captured Sindh would later be swelled by the [[Jat]]s and [[Med people|Med]]s as well as other irregulars who heard of the Arab successes in Sindh.<ref name="2004Wink1"/> When Muhammad ibn al-Qasim passed through the Makran desert while raising his forces, he had to subdue the restive towns of Fannazbur and Arman Belah ([[Lasbela District|Lasbela]]), both of which had previously been conquered by the Arabs.<ref>{{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=131}}</ref>

The first town assaulted in Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's Sindh campaign was [[Siege of Debal|Debal]] and upon the orders of al-Hajjaj, he exacted retribution on Debal by giving no quarter to its residents or priests and destroying its great temple.<ref name="2004Wink1"/>{{sfn|Friedmann|1993|p=405}} From Debal, the Arab army then marched north-east taking towns such as Nerun and Sadusan ([[Sehwan]]) without fighting.<ref name="2004Wink1"/> One-fifth of the war booty including slaves were remitted to al-Hajjaj and the Caliph.<ref name="2004Wink1"/> The conquest of these towns was accomplished with relative ease; however, Dahir's armies being prepared on the other side of the Indus{{efn|The [[Indus River]] during this time flowed to the east of Nerun, but a 10th-century earthquake caused the river to change to its course}} had not yet been confronted.<ref name="2004Wink1"/> In preparation to meet them, Muhammad returned to Nerun to resupply and receive reinforcements sent by al-Hajjaj.<ref name="2004Wink1"/> Camped on the east bank of the Indus, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim sent emissaries and bargained with the river Jats and boatmen.<ref name="2004Wink1"/> Upon securing the aid of Mokah Basayah, "the King of the island of Bet", Muhammad crossed over the river where he was joined by the forces of the [[Thakur (Indian title)|Thakore]] of Bhatta and the western Jats.<ref name="2004Wink1"/>

At Aror ([[Rohri]]) Muhammad ibn al-Qasim was met by Dahir's forces and the eastern Jats in battle.<ref name="2004Wink1"/> Dahir died in the battle, his forces were defeated and Muhammad ibn al-Qasim took control of Sindh.<ref name="2004Wink1"/>

Soon the capitals of the other provinces, Brahmanabad, Alor (Battle of Aror) and [[Multan]], were captured alongside other in-between towns with only light Muslim casualties.<ref name="2004Wink1" /> Multan was a key site in the [[Hindu religion]].{{sfn|Friedmann|1993|p=405}} Usually after a siege of a few weeks or months the Arabs gained a city through the intervention of heads of mercantile houses with whom subsequent treaties and agreements would be settled.<ref name="2004Wink1" /> After battles all fighting men were executed and their wives and children enslaved in considerable numbers and the usual fifth of the booty and slaves were sent to al-Hajjaj.<ref name="2004Wink1" /> The general populace was encouraged to carry on with their trades and taxes and tributes settled.<ref name="2004Wink1" />

The conquest of Sindh (and areas of [[Punjab]]) in modern-day Pakistan, although costly, was a major gain for the Umayyad Caliphate. However, further gains were halted by Hindu kingdoms during [[Caliphate campaigns in India|Arab campaigns]]. The Arabs attempted to invade India but they were defeated by North Indian kings [[Bappa Rawal]] of [[Guhila dynasty]],  [[Nagabhata I|Nagabhata]], of the [[Gurjara-Pratihara]] dynasty and by the South Indian emperor [[Vikramaditya II]] of the [[Chalukya dynasty]] in the early 8th century. After the failure of further expeditions on Kathiawar, the Arab chroniclers conceded that the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] caliph [[al-Mahdi]] ({{reign|775|785}}) "gave up the project of conquering any part of India."<ref name="Sen1999">{{citation|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA343|date=1999-01-01|publisher=New Age International|isbn=978-81-224-1198-0|pages=343–}}</ref>

===Military and political strategy===
The military strategy had been outlined by Al-Hajjaj in a letter sent to Muhammad ibn al-Qasim:<ref name="Derryl1">{{harvnb|MacLean|1989|pp=37–39}}</ref>
<blockquote>My ruling is given: Kill anyone belonging to the ''ahl-i-harb'' (combatants); arrest their sons and daughters for hostages and imprison them. Whoever does not fight against us...grant them [[Aman (Islam)|''aman'']] (peace and safety) and settle their tribute [''amwal''] as ''dhimmah'' (protected person)...</blockquote>

The Arabs' first concern was to facilitate the conquest of Sindh with the fewest casualties while also trying to preserve the economic infrastructure.{{sfn|MacLean|1989|pp=37-39}} Towns were given two options: submit to Islamic authority peacefully or be attacked by force ({{Transliteration|ar|anwattan}}), with the choice governing their treatment upon capture.{{sfn|MacLean|1989|pp=37-39}} The capture of towns was usually accomplished by means of a treaty with a party from among the enemy, who were then extended special privileges and material rewards.<ref name="Wink">{{harvnb|Wink|2002|pp=204–206}}</ref> There were two types of such treaties, "''[[Sulh]]''" or "''ahd-e-wasiq'' (capitulation)" and "''aman'' (surrender/ peace)".<ref name="Wink"/> Among towns and fortresses that were captured through force of arms, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim performed executions of ''ahl-i-harb'' (fighting men) as part of his military strategy, whose surviving dependants were enslaved.<ref name="Wink"/>

'''Casualties'''

Where resistance was strong, prolonged, and intensive, often resulting in considerable Arab casualties, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's response was dramatic, inflicting 6,000 deaths at Aror (Rohri), between 6,000 and 26,000 at Brahmanabad, 4,000 at Iskalandah (Uch), and 6,000 at Multan.{{sfn|MacLean|1989|pp=22-29}} Conversely, in areas taken by ''sulh'', such as Armabil, Nirun, and Aror, resistance was light and few casualties occurred.{{sfn|MacLean|1989|pp=22-29}} Sulh appeared to be Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's preferred mode of conquest, the method used for more than 60% of the towns and tribes recorded by al-Baladhuri and the ''Chach Nama''.{{sfn|MacLean|1989|pp=22-29}} At one point, he was actually berated by Al-Hajjaj for being too lenient.{{sfn|MacLean|1989|pp=22-29}} Meanwhile, the common folk were often pardoned and encouraged to continue working;<ref name="Wink"/> Al-Hajjaj ordered that this option not be granted to any inhabitant of Debal, yet Muhammad ibn al-Qasim still bestowed it upon certain groups and individuals.{{sfn|MacLean|1989|pp=22-29}}

===Reasons for success===
Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's success has been partly ascribed to Dahir being an unpopular Hindu king ruling over a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] majority who saw [[Chach of Alor]] and his kin as usurpers of the [[Rai dynasty]].<ref name="Gier"/> This is attributed to having resulted in support being provided by Buddhists and inclusion of rebel soldiers serving as valuable infantry in his cavalry-heavy force from the Jat and [[Meds (tribe)|Meds]].<ref>"The fall of Multan laid the Indus valley at the feet of the conqueror. The tribes came in, 'ringing bells and beating drums and dancing,' in token of welcome. The Hindu rulers had oppressed them heavily, and the Jats and Meds and other tribes were on the side of the invaders. The work of conquest, as often happened in India, was thus aided by the disunion of the inhabitants, and jealousies of race and creed conspired to help the Muslims. To such suppliants, Mohammad Qasim gave the liberal terms that the Arabs usually offered to all but inveterate foes. He imposed the customary poll tax, took hostages for good conduct, and spared the people's lands and lives. He even left their shrines undesecrated: 'The temples,' he proclaimed, 'shall be inviolate, like the churches of the Christians, the synagogues of the Jews, and the altars of the Magians.'" Stanley Lane-Poole, ''Medieval India under Mohammedan Rule'', 712-1764, G.P. Putnam's Sons. New York, 1970. p. 9-10</ref> Brahman, Buddhist, Greek, and Arab testimony however can be found that attests towards amicable relations between the adherents of the two religions up to the 7th century.<ref name="chachnama">''The Chachnamah, An Ancient History of Sind, Giving the Hindu period down to the Arab Conquest''. (1900). Translated from the Persian by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Karachi: Commissioners Press.</ref>

Along with this were:
# Superior military equipment; such as [[siege engines]] and the [[Mongol bow]].<ref name="Gier"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eV262iNGUb4C&q=manjaniks&pg=PA23|title=The Evolution of the Artillery in India: From the Battle of Plassey (1757) to the Revolt of 1857|first=Romesh C.|last=Butalia|date=Jul 30, 1998|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=9788170238720|access-date=Jul 30, 2020|via=Google Books}}</ref>
# Troop discipline and leadership.<ref name="Gier"/>
# The concept of Jihad as a morale booster.<ref name="Gier"/>
# Religion, i.e. the widespread belief in the prophecy of Muslim success.<ref name="Gier"/><ref name="chachnama"/>
# The Samanis being persuaded to submit and not take up arms because the majority of the population was Buddhist who were dissatisfied with their rulers, who were Hindu.<ref name="chachnama"/>
# The labouring under disabilities of the [[Lohana]] Jats.<ref name="chachnama"/>
# Defections from among Dahir's chiefs and nobles.<ref name="chachnama"/>