Editing Orthogenesis (section)

==Theories==
{{further|Alternatives to evolution by natural selection}}

For the columns for other philosophies of evolution (i.e., combined theories including any of Lamarckism, Mutationism, Natural selection, and Vitalism), "yes" means that person definitely supports the theory; "no" means explicit opposition to the theory; a blank means the matter is apparently not discussed, not part of the theory.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Theories of orthogenesis in [[evolutionary biology]]<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Cigna, Arrigo A.|editor2=Durante, Marco |title=Radiation Risk Estimates in Normal and Emergency Situations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgrABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA213 |year=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-4956-9 |page=213}}</ref>
! Author !! Title !! Field !! Date !! [[Lamarckism|Lamarck.]] !! [[Mutationism|Mutat.]] !! [[Natural selection|Nat.&nbsp;Sel.]] !! [[Vitalism|Vital.]] !! Features
|-
| [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]] || ''[[Inherent progressive tendency]]'' || Zoology || 1809 || yes ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || In his ''[[Philosophie Zoologique]]'', inherent progressive tendency drives organisms continuously towards greater [[Evolution of biological complexity|complexity]], in separate lineages ([[phylum|phyla]]), no [[extinction]].<ref name=Gould1977/> ("[[Lamarckism]]", use and disuse, and [[inheritance of acquired characteristics]], was a secondary aspect of this, an adaptive force creating species within a phylum.<ref name="Gould 2001"/>)

|-
| [[Karl Ernst von Baer|Baer]] || ''[[Purposeful creation]]'' || Embryology || 1859 ||<!--Lamarck.--> ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> ||  "Forces which are not directed—so-called blind forces—can never produce order."<ref name=Brown2001/>

|-
| [[Albert von Kölliker|Kölliker]] || ''[[Heterogenesis]]'' || Anatomy || 1864 || yes ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || Wholly separate lines of descent with no common ancestor<ref name=Vucinich1988/>

|-
| [[Edward Drinker Cope|Cope]] || ''[[Law of acceleration]]'' || Palaeontology || 1868 || yes ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || Combined orthogenetic constraints with [[Lamarckian]] use and disuse. "On the Origin of Genera";<ref name=Popov2005/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Barnes |first1=M. Elizabeth |title=Edward Drinker Cope's Law of Acceleration of Growth |url=https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/edward-drinker-copes-law-acceleration-growth  |date=24 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=LevitOlsson2006/> See also [[Cope's rule]] (linear increase in size of species)

|-
| [[Carl Nägeli|Nägeli]] || ''[[Inner perfecting principle]]'' || Botany || 1884 || yes ||<!--Mutat.--> || no ||<!--Vital.--> || An "[[idioplasm]]" transmitted inherited characteristics; many evolutionary developments nonadaptive; variation internally programmed.{{sfn|Bowler|1989|pages=268–270}}<ref name=LevitOlsson2006/>

|-
| [[Herbert Spencer|Spencer]] || Progressionism<br />'The Development Hypothesis' || Social theory || 1852
|| Yes{{sfn|Ruse|1996|page=189}} ||<!--Mutat.--> || <!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || Cultural value of progress; "Spencer has no rivals when it comes to open, flagrant connections of social Progress with evolutionary progress."—[[Michael Ruse]]{{sfn|Ruse|1996|pages=181–191}}

|-
| [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] || (concept of higher and lower species), [[Pangenesis]] || Evolution || 1859 || yes ||<!--Mutat.--> || yes ||<!--Vital.--> || ''[[Origin of Species]]'' is somewhat progressionist, e.g. man higher than animals, alongside [[natural selection]]<ref name=Darwin1859/><ref name=WatsonAngle/> Pangenesis theory of inheritance by gemmules from all over body was [[Lamarckism|Lamarckian]]: parents could [[inheritance of acquired characters|pass on traits acquired]] in lifetime.<ref name= ImaginaryLamarck>{{Cite book |last =Ghiselin|first=Michael T.|author-link=Michael Ghiselin|date=September–October 1994| contribution =Nonsense in schoolbooks: 'The Imaginary Lamarck'|contribution-url =http://www.textbookleague.org/54marck.htm| title =The Textbook Letter|publisher =The Textbook League|url =http://www.textbookleague.org/|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20000115220615/http://www.textbookleague.org/|url-status =usurped|archive-date =January 15, 2000|access-date=2008-01-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Magner |first=Lois N. |title=A History of the Life Sciences |edition=Third |publisher=[[Marcel Dekker]], [[CRC Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-203-91100-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKJ6gVYbrGwC}}</ref>

|-
| [[Wilhelm Haacke|Haacke]] || Orthogenesis || Zoology || 1893 || yes ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || Accompanied by ''[[Epimorphism (biology)|epimorphism]]'', a tendency to increasing perfection<ref name=Popov2005/><ref name=LevitOlsson2006/>

|-
| [[Theodor Eimer|Eimer]] || Orthogenesis|| Zoology  || 1898 ||<!--Lamarck.--> ||<!--Mutat.--> || no ||<!--Vital.--> || ''On Orthogenesis: And the Impotence of Natural Selection in Species Formation'': trends in [[evolution]] with no adaptive significance, claimed hard to explain by natural selection.<ref name=Shanahan2004/><ref name=LevitOlsson2006/>
|-
| [[Henri Bergson|Bergson]] || ''[[Élan vital|Elan vital<!--to permit sorting-->]]'' || Philosophy || 1907 ||<!--Lamarck.--> ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> || yes || ''[[Creative Evolution (book)|Creative Evolution]]''{{sfn|Bowler|1989|pages=116–117}}

|-
| [[Hans Przibram|Przibram]] || ''[[Apogenesis]]'' || Embryology || 1910s ||<!--Lamarck.--> ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || <ref name=Popov2005/>

|-
| [[Ludwig Hermann Plate|Plate]] || ''[[Orthoselection]]'' or ''Old-Darwinism'' || Zoology || 1913 || yes || yes || yes ||<!--Vital.--> || Combined theory<ref name=LevitOlsson2006/>

|-
| [[Daniele Rosa|Rosa]] || ''[[Hologenesis]]'' || Zoology  || 1918 || yes ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || ''Hologenesis: a New Theory of Evolution and the Geographical Distribution of Living Beings''<ref name=Luzzatto2000>{{cite journal |author1=Luzzatto, Michele|author2=Palestrini, Claudia|author3=D'entrèves, Passerin Pietro |date=2000 |title=Hologenesis: The Last and Lost Theory of Evolutionary Change |journal=Italian Journal of Zoology |volume=67 |pages=129–138 |doi=10.1080/11250000009356303|s2cid=85796293 }}</ref><ref name=LevitOlsson2006/>

|-
| [[Charles Otis Whitman|Whitman]] || Orthogenesis || Zoology  || 1919 || no || no || no ||<!--Vital.--> || ''Orthogenetic Evolution in Pigeons'' posthumous<ref name=Castle1920>{{cite journal |last1=Castle |first1=W.E. |year=1920 |title=Review of Orthogenetic Evolution in Pigeons |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=54 |issue=631 |pages=188–192 |doi=10.1086/279751|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Stephen Jay Gould |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |date=2002 |title=The Structure of Evolutionary Theory |publisher=Harvard University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/structureofevolu00goul/page/283 283] |isbn=978-0-674-00613-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/structureofevolu00goul/page/283 }}</ref>

|-
| [[Lev Berg|Berg]] || ''[[Nomogenesis]]''|| Zoology || 1926 || no || yes || no ||<!--Vital.--> || Chemical forces direct evolution, leading to humans{{sfn|Ruse|1996|p=395}}<ref name=LevitOlsson2006/>{{sfn|Bowler|1983|p=157}}

|-
| [[Othenio Abel|Abel]] || ''Trägheitsgesetz'' (the law of inertia) || Palaeontology || 1928 ||<!--Lamarck.--> ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || based on [[Dollo's law of irreversibility]] of evolution (which can be explained without orthogenesis as a statistical improbability that a path should be exactly reversed)<ref name=LevitOlsson2006/>

|-
| [[André Michel Lwoff|Lwoff]] || ''[[Physiological degradation]]''|| Physiology || 1930s–1940s || yes ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || Directed loss of functions in microorganisms<ref name=Popov2005/><ref>{{cite book |last=Lwoff |first=A. |author-link=André Michel Lwoff |title=L'evolution physiologique. Etude des pertes de fonctions chez les microorganismes |location=Paris |publisher=Hermann |date=1944 |pages=1–308 |quote=L'idée s'imposa que les microorganismes avaient subi des pertes de fonction. Celles-ci apparurent comme la manifestation d'une évolution physiologique, definie comme une degradation, une orthogenese regressive.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loison |first1=Laurent |last2=Gayon |first2=Jean |last3=Burian |first3=Richard M. |title=The Contributions – and Collapse – of Lamarckian Heredity in Pasteurian Molecular Biology: 1. Lysogeny, 1900–1960 |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |date=2017 |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=5–52 |doi=10.1007/s10739-015-9434-3 |pmid=26732271 |s2cid=30286465 }}</ref>

|-
| [[Karl Beurlen|Beurlen]] || Orthogenesis  || Palaeontology || 1930 || no ||<!--Mutat.--> || no ||<!--Vital.--> || Start is random ''metakinesis'', generating variety; then ''palingenesis'' (in Beurlen's sense, repeating developmental pathway of ancestors) as mechanism for orthogenesis<ref name=LevitOlsson2006/>

|-
| {{ill|Victor Jollos|pl}} || Directed mutation || Protozoology, Zoology || 1931 || yes ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || Combined orthogenesis with [[Lamarckism]] (inheriting acquired characteristics after heat shock as ''dauermodifications'', passed on by ''plasmatic inheritance'' in the [[cytoplasm]])<ref name=LevitOlsson2006/>

|-
| [[Henry Fairfield Osborn|Osborn]] || ''[[Aristogenesis]]'' || Palaeontology || 1934 || yes || no || no ||<!--Vital.--> || <ref name=Wallace2005>{{cite book |last=Wallace |first=David Rains |date=2005 |title=Beasts of Eden: Walking Whales, Dawn Horses, And Other Enigmas of Mammal Evolution |publisher=University of California Press |page=96 |isbn=978-0-520-24684-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Regal |first=Brian |date=2002 |title=Henry Fairfield Osborn: Race, and the Search for the Origins of Man |publisher=Ashgate |pages=184–192 |isbn=978-0-7546-0587-4}}</ref>

|-
| [[John Christopher Willis|Willis]] ||''[[Differentiation (orthogenesis)]]'' || Botany || 1942 ||<!--Lamarck.--> ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> || yes || a force "working upon some definite law that we do not yet comprehend", compromise between special creation and natural selection, driven by large mutations involving chromosome alterations<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hubbs |first=Carl L. |title=[Review:] The Course of Evolution by J. C. Willis |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=76 |issue=762 (Jan. Feb., 1942) |pages=96–101|doi=10.1086/281018 }}</ref>
|-
| [[Pierre Lecomte du Noüy|Noüy]] || ''[[Telefinalism]]'' || Biophysics || 1947 ||<!--Lamarck.--> ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> || yes || In book ''Human Destiny'',<ref name=Koch1957/> essentially religious<ref name=Koch1957>{{cite journal |last=Koch |first=Leo Francis |date=1957 |title=Vitalistic-Mechanistic Controversy |journal=[[The Scientific Monthly]] |volume=85 |issue=5 |pages=245–255|bibcode=1957SciMo..85..245K }}</ref>

|-
| {{ill|Albert Vandel|fr|lt=Vandel}} || ''[[Organicism]]'' || Zoology || 1949 ||<!--Lamarck.--> ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.-->No ||<!--Vital.--> || ''L'Homme et L'Evolution''<ref name=Popov2005/>
|-
| [[Edmund Ware Sinnott|Sinnott]] || ''[[Telism]]'' || Botany || 1950 ||<!--Lamarck.--> ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> || yes ||  In book ''Cell and Psyche'',<ref name=Koch1957/> essentially religious<ref name=Simpson1964/>

|-
|  [[Otto Schindewolf|Schindewolf]] || ''[[Typostrophism]]'' || Palaeontology  || 1950 ||<!--Lamarck.--> || yes ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || ''Basic Questions in Paleontology: Geologic Time, Organic Evolution and Biological Systematics''; evolution due to periodic cycle of processes dictated by factors internal to organism.<ref name=Kwa2011/><ref name=LevitOlsson2006/>

|-
| [[Pierre Teilhard de Chardin|Teilhard de Chardin]] || ''[[Directed additivity]]''<br />''[[Omega Point]]'' || Palaeontology<br />[[Mysticism]] || 1959 ||<!--Lamarck.--> ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> || yes || ''[[The Phenomenon of Man]]'' posthumous; combined orthogenesis with non-material vitalist directive force aiming for a supposed "[[Omega Point]]" with creation of consciousness. ''[[Noosphere]]'' concept from [[Vladimir Vernadsky]].<ref name=LevitOlsson2006/> Censured by Gaylord Simpson for nonscientific spiritualistic "doubletalk".<ref name="Lane 1996"/><ref name=Teilhard2003>{{cite book |last=Chardin |first=Pierre Teilhard de |year=2003 |orig-year=1959 |title=The Human Phenomenon |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |page=65 |isbn=1-902210-30-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Novack |first=George |title=Marxist Writings on History & Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=do0aStFKEK0C&pg=PA207 |year=2002 |publisher=Resistance Books |isbn=978-1-876646-23-3 |page=207}}</ref>

|-
| [[Léon Croizat|Croizat]] || ''[[Biological synthesis (philosophy)|Biological synthesis]]''<br />''[[Panbiogeography]]'' || Botany || 1964 ||<!--Lamarck.--> ||<!--Mutat.--> ||<!--Nat. Sel.--> ||<!--Vital.--> || mechanistic, caused by [[developmental constraint]]s or [[phylogenetic constraint]]s<ref name=Popov2005/><ref name="Gray1989">{{cite journal |last=Gray |first=Russell |title=Oppositions in panbiogeography: can the conflicts between selection, constraint, ecology, and history be resolved? |journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology |date=1989 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=787–806 |doi=10.1080/03014223.1989.10422935}}</ref>

|-
| Lima-de-Faria || ''[[Autoevolutionism]]'' || Physics, Chemistry || 1988 || No || No || No || No || Natural selection is immaterial so cannot work.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lima-de-Faria |first=A. |year=1988 |title=Evolution Without Selection: Form and Function by Autoevolution |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0444809636}}</ref>

|}

[[File:Alternatives to Darwinism.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Alternatives to evolution by natural selection|Multiple explanations have been offered]] since the 19th century for how evolution took place, given that many scientists initially had objections to natural selection. Many of these theories led (solid blue arrows) to some form of orthogenesis, with or without invoking [[theistic evolution|divine control]] (dotted blue arrows) directly or indirectly. For example, evolutionists like [[Edward Drinker Cope]] believed in a combination of theistic evolution, Lamarckism, vitalism, and orthogenesis,{{sfn|Bowler|1989|pp=261-262}} represented by a sequence of arrows on the left of the diagram. The development of modern Darwinism is indicated by dashed orange arrows.]]

The various [[Alternatives to evolution by natural selection|alternatives to Darwinian evolution]] by natural selection were not necessarily mutually exclusive. The evolutionary philosophy of the American palaeontologist [[Edward Drinker Cope]] is a case in point. Cope, a religious man, began his career denying the possibility of evolution. In the 1860s, he accepted that evolution could occur, but, influenced by Agassiz, rejected natural selection. Cope accepted instead the theory of recapitulation of evolutionary history during the growth of the embryo - that [[ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny]], which Agassiz believed showed a divine plan leading straight up to man, in a pattern revealed both in [[embryology]] and [[palaeontology]]. Cope did not go so far, seeing that evolution created a branching tree of forms, as Darwin had suggested. Each evolutionary step was however non-random: the direction was determined in advance and had a regular pattern (orthogenesis), and steps were not adaptive but part of a divine plan (theistic evolution). This left unanswered the question of why each step should occur, and Cope switched his theory to accommodate functional adaptation for each change. Still rejecting natural selection as the cause of adaptation, Cope turned to Lamarckism to provide the force guiding evolution. Finally, Cope supposed that Lamarckian use and disuse operated by causing a vitalist growth-force substance, "bathmism", to be concentrated in the areas of the body being most intensively used; in turn, it made these areas develop at the expense of the rest. Cope's complex set of beliefs thus assembled five evolutionary philosophies: recapitulationism, orthogenesis, theistic evolution, Lamarckism, and vitalism.{{sfn|Bowler|1989|pp=261-262}} Other palaeontologists and field naturalists continued to hold beliefs combining orthogenesis and Lamarckism until the modern synthesis in the 1930s.{{sfn|Bowler|1989|p=264}}