Editing Paradigm shift (section)

== Examples ==

=== Natural sciences ===
Some of the "classical cases" of Kuhnian paradigm shifts in science are:

* 1543 – The transition in [[cosmology]] from a [[Geocentric model|Ptolemaic cosmology]] to a [[Copernican heliocentrism|Copernican]] one.<ref>Kuhn, 1970, pp. 154 and passim</ref>
* 1543 – The acceptance of the work of [[Andreas Vesalius]], whose work ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' corrected the numerous errors in the previously held system of [[human anatomy]] created by [[Galen]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=[Vesalius and De humani corporis fabrica: Galen's errors and the change of anatomy in the sixteenth century] | pmid=11625189 | journal=Hippokrates (Helsinki) | pages=98–112 | last1 = Joutsivuo | first1 = T| year=1997 }}</ref>
* 1687 – The transition in [[mechanics]] from [[Aristotelian mechanics]] to [[classical mechanics]].<ref>Kuhn, 1970, pp. 148 and passim</ref>
* 1783 – The acceptance of [[Lavoisier]]'s theory of chemical reactions and combustion in place of [[phlogiston theory]], known as the [[chemical revolution]].<ref>Paradigm Shifts: Technology & Culture</ref><ref>Kuhn, 1970, p. 157</ref>
* The transition in [[optics]] from [[geometrical optics]] to [[physical optics]] with [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel]]'s wave theory.<ref>Kuhn, 1970, p. 155</ref>
* 1826 – The discovery of [[hyperbolic geometry]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Trudeau|first1=Richard J|title=The non-Euclidean revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/noneuclideanrevo0000trud|url-access=registration|date=1987|publisher=Birkhäuser|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-8176-3311-0}}</ref>
* 1830 to 1833 – [[Geologist]] [[Charles Lyell]] published ''[[Principles of Geology]]'', which not only put forth the concept of [[uniformitarianism]], which was in direct contrast to the popular geological theory, at the time, [[catastrophism]], but also utilized geological proof to determine that the age of the Earth was  [[Age of the Earth|older than 6,000 years]], which was previously held to be true.
* 1859 – The revolution in [[evolution]] from goal-directed change to [[Charles Darwin]]'s [[natural selection]].<ref>Kuhn, 1970, pp. 151 and passim</ref>
* 1880 – The [[germ theory of disease]] began overtaking Galen's [[miasma theory]].
* 1905 – The development of [[quantum mechanics]], which replaced [[classical mechanics]] at microscopic scales.<ref>Kuhn, 1970, pp. 83–84, 151 and passim</ref>
* 1887 to 1905 – The transition from the [[luminiferous aether]] present in [[space]] to [[electromagnetic radiation]] in [[spacetime]].<ref>Kuhn, 1970, p. 107</ref>
* 1919 – The transition between the worldview of [[Newtonian gravity]] and [[general relativity]].
* 1920 – The emergence of the modern view of the [[Milky Way]] as just one of countless galaxies within an immeasurably vast universe following the results of the Smithsonian's [[Shapley-Curtis Debate|Great Debate]] between astronomers [[Harlow Shapley]] and [[Heber Curtis]].
* 1952 – [[Chemist]]s [[Stanley Miller]] and [[Harold Urey]] perform an [[Miller–Urey experiment|experiment]] which simulated the conditions on the [[Hadean|early Earth]] that favored chemical reactions that synthesized more complex [[organic compounds]] from simpler inorganic precursors, kickstarting decades of research into the [[abiogenesis|chemical origins of life]].
* 1964 – The [[discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation]] leads to the [[Big Bang theory]] being accepted over the [[steady state theory]] in [[cosmology]].
* 1965 – The acceptance of [[plate tectonics]] as the explanation for large-scale geologic changes.
* 1969 – [[Astronomer]] [[Victor Safronov]], in his book ''Evolution of the protoplanetary cloud and formation of the Earth and the planets'', developed the early version of the current [[nebular hypothesis|accepted theory of planetary formation]].
* 1974 – The November Revolution, with the discovery of the [[J/psi meson]], and the acceptance of the existence of [[quarks]] and the [[Standard Model]] of particle physics.
* 1960 to 1985 – The acceptance of the ubiquity of [[nonlinearity|nonlinear]] [[dynamical systems]] as promoted by [[chaos theory]], instead of a [[Laplace|laplacian]] world-view of [[determinism|deterministic]] predictability.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gleick |first=James |author-link=James Gleick |date=1988 |title=Chaos:making a new science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=upcJCIH8M_oC |location=New York |publisher=Viking Penguin|pages=35–56|chapter=Chapter 2:Revolution|isbn=0-670-81178-5}}</ref>

=== Social sciences ===
In Kuhn's view, the existence of a single reigning paradigm is characteristic of the natural sciences, while philosophy and much of social science were characterized by a "tradition of claims, counterclaims, and debates over fundamentals."<ref>{{Cite book |last= Kuhn |first= Thomas N. |author-link= Thomas Kuhn |editor1-last= Lakatos |editor1-first= Imre |editor2-last= Musgrave |editor2-first= Alan |editor1-link= Imre Lakatos |editor2-link= Alan Musgrave |title= Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge |edition= second |orig-year= 1970 |year= 1972 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location= Cambridge |isbn= 978-0-521-09623-2 |page= [https://archive.org/details/criticismgrowth00laka/page/6 6] |chapter= Logic of Discovery or Psychology of Research |chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/criticismgrowth00laka/page/6 }}</ref>  Others have applied Kuhn's concept of paradigm shift to the social sciences.

* The movement known as the [[cognitive revolution]] moved away from [[Behaviorism|behaviourist]] approaches to [[psychology]] and the acceptance of [[cognition]] as central to studying human behavior.
* [[Anthropologist]] [[Franz Boas]] published ''[[The Mind of Primitive Man]]'', which integrated his theories concerning the history and development of cultures and established a program that would dominate American anthropology in the following years. His research, along with that of his other colleagues, combatted and debunked the claims being made by scholars at the time, given [[scientific racism]] and [[eugenics]] were dominant in many universities and institutions that were dedicated to studying humans and society. Eventually [[anthropology]] would apply a holistic approach, utilizing four subcategories to study humans: [[archaeology]], [[cultural anthropology|cultural]], [[evolutionary anthropology|evolutionary]], and [[linguistic anthropology]].
* At the turn of the 20th century, [[sociologist]]s, along with other [[social scientist]]s developed and adopted methodological [[antipositivism]], which sought to uphold a subjective perspective when studying human activities pertaining to [[culture]], [[society]], and [[behavior]]. This was in stark contrast to [[positivism]], which took its influence from the methodologies utilized within the [[natural science]]s.
* First proposed by [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] in 1879, the [[laryngeal theory]] in [[Indo-European linguistics]] postulated the existence of "laryngeal" consonants in the [[Proto-Indo-European language]] (PIE), a theory that was confirmed by the discovery of the [[Hittite language]] in the early 20th century. The theory has since been accepted by the vast majority of linguists, paving the way for the [[internal reconstruction]] of the syntax and grammatical rules of PIE and is considered one of the most significant developments in linguistics since the initial discovery of the [[Indo-European language family]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Indo European Linguistics: An Introduction|year=2007|url=https://archive.org/details/indoeuropeanling00clac|url-access=limited|author=James Clackson|publisher=[[Cambridge University]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/indoeuropeanling00clac/page/n76 53]|isbn=9780521653671}}</ref>
* The adoption of [[radiocarbon dating]] by archaeologists has been proposed as a paradigm shift because of how it greatly increased the time depth the archaeologists could reliably date objects from. Similarly the use of [[LIDAR]] for remote geospatial imaging of cultural landscapes, and the shift from processual to post-processual archaeology have both been claimed as paradigm shifts by archaeologists.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Sophie C. |last2=Marwick |first2=Ben |title=Tool-Driven Revolutions in Archaeological Science |journal=Journal of Computer Applications in Archaeology |date=28 January 2020 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=18–32 |doi=10.5334/jcaa.29|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* The [[Marginalism#Marginal_Revolution|Marginal Revolution]], a development of economic theory in the late 19th century led by [[William Stanley Jevons]] in England, [[Carl Menger]] in Austria, and [[Léon Walras]] in Switzerland and France which explained economic behavior in terms of [[marginal utility]].

=== Applied sciences ===
More recently, paradigm shifts are also recognisable in applied sciences:
* In medicine, the transition from "clinical judgment" to [[evidence-based medicine]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}
* In [[Artificial Intelligence]], the transition from a knowledge-based to a data-driven paradigm has been discussed from 2010.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cristianini|first1=Nello|title=On the Current Paradigm in Artificial Intelligence|journal=AI Communications|date=2012|volume=27|pages=37–43|doi=10.3233/AIC-130582}}</ref>