Editing Participle (section)

===Germanic languages===

====Early English====
In [[Old English]], past participles of [[Germanic strong verb]]s were marked with a ''ge-'' prefix, a West Germanic feature still found in most strong and weak past participles in Dutch and German today, and often by a vowel change in the stem. Those of weak verbs were marked by the ending ''-d'', with or without an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowel before it. Modern English past participles derive from these forms (although the ''ge-'' prefix, which became ''y-'' in Middle English, has now been lost — except in some rare dialects such as the [[Dorset dialect]], where it takes the form of ''a-'').

Old English present participles were marked with an ending in ''-ende'' (or ''-iende'' for verbs whose infinitives ended in ''-ian'').

====Middle English====
In [[Middle English]], the form of the present participle varied across regions: ''-ende'' (southwest, southeast, [[English Midlands|Midlands]]), ''-inde'' (southwest, southeast), ''-and'' (north), ''-inge'' (southeast). The last is the one that became standard, falling together with the suffix ''-ing'' used to form [[verbal noun]]s. See [[-ing#Etymology|''-ing'' (etymology)]].

====Modern English====
{{anchor|Modern English}}[[Modern English]] includes two traditional terms for its participles:<ref>Quirk et al., 3.9</ref>
* The ''present participle'', also sometimes called the ''[[active voice|active]]'', ''[[imperfect]]'', or ''[[progressive aspect|progressive]]'' participle, takes the ending ''-ing'', for example ''doing'', ''seeing'', ''working'', ''running'', ''breaking'', ''understanding''. It is identical in form to the [[verbal noun]] and [[gerund]] (see below). The term ''present participle'' is sometimes used to include the gerund;<ref>For example, Quirk et al., 4.12.</ref> the term "gerund–participle" is also used to indicate the verb form.
* The ''past participle'', also sometimes called the ''[[passive voice|passive]]'' or ''[[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]'' participle, is identical to the [[simple past|past tense]] form (ending in ''-ed'') in the case of regular verbs, for example "loaded", "boiled", "mounted", but takes various forms in the case of [[English irregular verbs|irregular verbs]], such as ''done'', ''sung'', ''written'', ''broken'', ''understood'', ''put'', ''gone'', etc.

In addition, various compound participles can be formed, such as ''having done'', ''being done'', ''having been doing'', ''having been done''.<ref>Quirk et al., 3.15.</ref>

Details of participle formation can be found under [[English verbs]] and [[List of English irregular verbs]].

Participles, or participial phrases (clauses) formed from them, are used as follows:

1. As an adjective used in an attributive sense:
* A '''broken''' window (i.e., one that has been broken)
* An '''interesting''' book (i.e., one that interests)
* An '''exciting''' adventure (i.e., one that excites)
* The '''attached''' files (i.e., those that are attached)
* A '''fallen''' tree (i.e., one that has fallen)
* Our '''fallen''' comrades (i.e., those who have fallen)

Additionally, participles that express an adjectivally attributive meaning can be affixed to form adverbs, such as ''interestingly'' and ''excitedly''.

2. In postpositive phrases. These are often regarded as functioning as a [[reduced relative clause]]:
* A window '''broken''' by the wind (A window that was '''broken''' by the wind).
* A woman '''wearing''' a red hat (A woman who was '''wearing''' a red hat).
* The man '''standing''' over there is my uncle (The man who is '''standing''' over there is my uncle).
* We are a people '''clamoring''' for freedom (We are a people who are '''clamoring''' for freedom).

3. In an [[adverbial phrase]]. In the following, the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] is understood to be the same as that of the main clause:
* '''Reviewing''' her bank statement, Ann started to cry (While she reviewed her bank statement, Ann started to cry).
* '''Having reviewed''' the bank statement, Ann started to cry (After she reviewed her bank statement, Ann started to cry).
* He shot the man, '''killing''' him (He shot the man and killed him).
* '''Maintained''' properly, wooden buildings can last for centuries (If/when they are maintained properly, wooden buildings can last for centuries).

With a different subject, placed before the participle:
* He and I '''having reconciled''' our differences, the project then proceeded smoothly (Because/after he and I had reconciled our differences, the project proceeded smoothly). (This is known as the nominative absolute construction.)

More generally as a clause or sentence modifier: 
* Broadly '''speaking''', the project was successful.

4. Participles are used to form [[periphrastic]] verb tenses:

The present participle forms the [[progressive aspect|progressive]] aspect with the auxiliary verb ''be'':

* Jim was '''sleeping'''.

The past participle forms the [[Perfect (grammar)|perfect]] aspect with the auxiliary verb ''have'':

* The chicken has '''eaten'''.

5. The past participle is used to form [[English passive voice|passive voice]]: 
* The chicken was '''eaten'''.
Such passive participles can appear in an adjectival phrase: 
*The chicken '''eaten''' by the children was contaminated. 
Adverbially: 
*'''Eaten''' in this manner, the chicken presents no problem.
And in a nominative absolute construction, with a subject: 
*The chicken '''eaten''', we returned home.

Note that a past participle that complements a [[stative verb]] (e.g., "The files that ''are attached'' or "Our comrades who ''have fallen''") becomes a passive participle within a [[passive voice]] construct.

6. As a gerund. The [[gerund]] is traditionally regarded as distinct from the present participle. A gerund can function transitively (e.g., "I like ''eating ice cream''") or intransitively (e.g., "I like ''swimming''"). In both instances, a gerund functions nominatively rather than adjectivally or adverbially—whether as an object (e.g., "I like ''sleeping''") or as a subject (e.g., "''Sleeping'' is not allowed"). Although ''gerunds'' and ''present participles'' are morphologically identical, their grammatical functions differ substantially.

Sometimes their morphological similarity can create contextual ambiguity, as [[Noam Chomsky]] pointed out in his well-known example:<ref>Noam Chomsky, ''[[Aspects of the Theory of Syntax]]'' (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1965), 21.</ref>
*'''Flying''' planes can be dangerous.

When the meaning is "The practice of flying a plane is dangerous," ''flying'' functions as a gerund; when the danger concerns "Planes that fly" or "Planes when they are flying" (i.e., in contrast to ''grounded planes''), ''flying'' is being used adjectivally as a participle. For more on the distinctions between these uses of the ''-ing'' verb form, see [[-ing#Uses|''-ing'': uses]].

For more details on uses of participles and other parts of verbs in English, see [[Uses of English verb forms]], including the sections on the [[Uses of English verb forms#Present participle|present participle]] and [[Uses of English verb forms#Past participle|past participle]].

The following table summarises some of the uses of participles in English:

{| class="wikitable"
|+Active participle usage versus passive participle usage
!Example
!Tense name
!Lexical category      
!Voice
|-
|The '''baked''' bread
|n/a
|past participle ([[prepositive]]); adjectival
|Passive
|-
|Bread '''baked''' daily
|n/a
|past participle ([[Postpositive adjective|postpositive]]); adjectival
|Passive
|-
|The '''acting''' president
|n/a
|present participle (prepositive); adjectival
|Active
|-
|The time '''remaining''' 
|n/a
|present participle (postpositive); adjectival
|Active
|-
|You look '''lost'''
|present simple
|past participle; adjectival
|Passive
|-
|You look '''charming'''
|present simple
|present participle; adjectival
|Active
|-
|You are '''lost'''
|present simple
|past participle; adjectival
|Passive
|-
|You are '''losing'''
|present continuous
|present participle; aspectual
|Active
|-
|He has '''finished'''
|present perfect
|past participle; aspectual
|Active
|-
|He has '''been''' finished
|present perfect
|past participle; aspectual
|Passive
|-
|He has been '''finished'''
|present perfect
|past participle; adjectival
|Passive
|-
|He has been '''finishing'''  
|present perfect continuous
|present participle; aspectual
|Active
|-
|She had '''been''' run
|past perfect 
|past participle; aspectual
|Passive
|-
|She had been '''run''' 
|past perfect 
|past participle; aspectual
|Passive
|-
|She had been '''running'''
|past perfect continuous
|present participle; aspectual
|Active
|-
|She had been running '''ragged'''
|past perfect continuous
|past participle; adverbial
|Passive
|-
|She had been running '''unwillingly'''
|past perfect continuous
|[[suffix]]ed present participle; adverbial
|Passive
|-

|}

==== Scandinavian languages ====
In all of the [[North Germanic languages|Scandinavian languages]] the past participle has to agree with the noun to some degree. All of the Scandinavian languages have mandatory agreement with the noun in number. [[Nynorsk]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] have mandatory agreement in both number and gender. [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Faroese language|Faroese]] have agreement in number, gender and case. The verb form used for the perfect (or "[[supine]]") aspect is generally identical to the nominative neuter singular form of the past participle for all verbs. For the present participle there is no agreement.

Examples in [[Nynorsk]]:
* '''Sjølvkøyrande''' bilar kan vere farlege. (English: '''self-driving''' ''cars can be dangerous)''
* Kyllingen vart '''eten''' (English: The chicken was '''eaten''')
* Dyret vart '''ete''' (English: The deer was '''eaten''')
The participles are marked in bold. The first example involves a present participle and the two latter examples involves a past participle. All present participles end with an -ande suffix.

In Norwegian, the present participle may be used to form adjectives or adverbs denoting the possibility or convenience of performing the action prescribed by the verb. For example:
* Var maten '''etande'''? (English: Was the food '''edible'''?) (or rather: Was the food '''any good'''?)
* Utan servo vert bilen fort '''ukøyrande'''. (English: Without power steering, the car soon becomes '''impossible to drive'''.) (Lit: un-drivable)
This construction is allowed in Nynorsk, but not in [[Bokmål]], where suffixes like ''-elig'' or ''-bar'' are used instead.