Editing Peru (section)

=== 20th century ===
[[File:Protocolo de Río.jpg|thumb|upright|The signing of the [[Rio Protocol]] in January 1942]]
Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the [[Civilista Party]], which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of [[Augusto B. Leguía]]. The [[Great Depression]] caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance]] (APRA).<ref>Klarén, Peter (2000). ''Peru: society and nationhood in the Andes''. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 262–276, {{ISBN|0195069285}}.</ref> The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the [[Treaty of Lima (1929)|Treaty of Lima]], returned [[Tacna]] to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in a [[Leticia Incident|year-long war with Colombia]] over a territorial dispute involving the [[Amazonas (Colombian department)|Amazonas Department]] and its capital [[Leticia, Amazonas|Leticia]].

In 1941 Peru and Ecuador fought the [[Ecuadorian–Peruvian War]], after which the [[Rio Protocol]] sought to formalize the boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, General [[Manuel A. Odría]] became president. Odría's presidency was known as the ''Ochenio''. He came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a [[Populism|populist]] course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same time, however, [[Civil and political rights|civil rights]] were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. Odría was succeeded by [[Manuel Prado Ugarteche]]. However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, via a [[1962 Peruvian coup d'état|coup d'état]] led by [[Ricardo Pérez Godoy]]. Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process.

[[File:Junta Militar de 1968.jpg|thumb|left|Military Junta of 1968]]
On 3 October 1968 another [[1968 Peruvian coup d'état|coup d'état]] led by a group of officers led by General [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]] brought the army to power with the aim of applying a doctrine of "social progress and integral development", nationalist and reformist, influenced by the ''                    Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe'' ([[CEPAL]]), i.e. the                     “United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribean” theses on dependence and underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco proceeded to nationalize the ''International Petroleum Corporation'' (IPC), the North American company that exploited Peruvian oil, and then launched a reform of the state apparatus, an agrarian reform. It was the biggest agrarian reform ever undertaken in Latin America: it abolished the [[Latifundium|latifunda]] system and modernized agriculture through a more equitable redistribution of land (90% of the peasants formed cooperatives or agricultural societies of social interest). Land was to be owned by those who cultivated it, and large landowners were expropriated. The only large properties allowed were cooperatives. 

Between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 families received land from the state with an average size of {{convert|73.6|acre|hectare}}. The "revolutionary government" also planned massive investments in education, elevated the [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] language – spoken by nearly half the population but hitherto despised by the authorities – to a status equivalent to that of Spanish and established equal rights for natural children. Peru wished to free itself from any dependence and carried out a third-world foreign policy. The [[United States]] responded with commercial, economic and diplomatic pressure. In 1973 Peru seemed to triumph over the financial blockade imposed by Washington by negotiating a loan from the International Development Bank to finance its agricultural and mining development policy. The relations with Chile became very tense after the coup d'état of the [[general Pinochet]]. General [[Edgardo Mercado Jarrín|Edgardo Mercado Jarrin]] (Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Army) and Admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig (Minister of the Navy) both escaped assassination attempts within weeks of each other. In 1975 General [[Francisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti]] seized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated in [[Operation Condor]] in collaboration with other American military dictatorships.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Francisco Morales Bermudez, ex-Peruvian military ruler, dies at 100 |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/obituaries/2022/07/16/morales-burmudez-peru-dies/ |access-date= |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=16 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716221253/https://www.washingtonpost.com/obituaries/2022/07/16/morales-burmudez-peru-dies/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brands|first=Hal|date=15 September 2010|title=The United States and the Peruvian Challenge, 1968–1975|journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|volume=21|issue=3|pages=471–490|doi=10.1080/09592296.2010.508418|s2cid=154119414}}</ref>

President [[Alan García]]'s economic policies distanced Peru from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 June 2010|title=Welcome, Mr. Peruvian President: Why Alan García is no hero to his people|url=http://www.coha.org/welcome-mr-peruvian-president-why-alan-garcia-is-no-hero-to-his-people/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418150551/http://www.coha.org/welcome-mr-peruvian-president-why-alan-garcia-is-no-hero-to-his-people/|archive-date=18 April 2019|access-date=18 April 2019|website=[[Council on Hemispheric Affairs]]|language=en-US}}</ref> After the country experienced [[chronic inflation]], in mid-1985, the Peruvian [[Peruvian sol (1863–1985)|sol]] was replaced by the [[Peruvian inti|inti]], which itself was replaced by the [[Peruvian sol|nuevo sol]] in July 1991 (the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles). At the end of the 1980s, the per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20%, with national reserves running a $900 million deficit. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, like [[Shining Path|Sendero Luminoso]] (Shining Path) and [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement|MRTA]], which caused [[Internal conflict in Peru|great havoc]] throughout the country.<ref name="Leonard-2013" /><ref name="ECLAC-1992" /><ref>Luis Rossell, Historias gráficas de la violencia en el Perú, 1980–1984, 2008</ref>

[[File:Alberto Fujimori en 1991.jpg|thumb|upright=.85|President [[Alberto Fujimori]] during his first term]]
The Peruvian armed forces, frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises, drafted the [[Plan Verde]], which involved the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of the [[media in Peru]], and the establishment of a [[neoliberal]] economy controlled by a [[military junta]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rospigliosi|first=Fernando|title=Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista|publisher=Instituto de Estudios Peruanos|year=1996|location=Lima|pages=46–47}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gaussens|first1=Pierre|date=2020|title=The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s|journal=[[Canadian Journal of Bioethics]]|volume=3|issue=3|pages=180+|doi=10.7202/1073797ar|quote=a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention|s2cid=234586692|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burt|first=Jo-Marie|date=September–October 1998|title=Unsettled accounts: militarization and memory in postwar Peru|journal=[[NACLA|NACLA Report on the Americas]]|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|volume=32|issue=2|pages=35–41|doi=10.1080/10714839.1998.11725657|quote=the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.}}</ref> [[Alberto Fujimori]] assumed the presidency in 1990 and, according to the head of the [[National Intelligence Service (Peru)|National Intelligence Service (SIN)]] Rospigliosi, an understanding was established between Fujimori, [[Vladimiro Montesinos]], and some of the military officers involved in Plan Verde to abide by the military's demands prior to Fujimori's inauguration.<ref name="Alfredo3" /><ref name="Rospigliosi-1996b" /><ref name="Avilés-2009" /> Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined in Plan Verde, which led to a precitious drop in inflation from 7,650% at the start of 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992.<ref name="Leonard-2013" /><ref name="ECLAC-1992" /><ref name="Alfredo3" /> When Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts, he dissolved Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in the ''[[Self-coup|auto-golpe]]'' ("self-coup") of 5 April 1992.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=Maxwell A. |date=June 1998 |title=Latin American Autogolpes: Dangerous Undertows in the Third Wave of Democratisation |journal=[[Third World Quarterly]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=228 |doi=10.1080/01436599814433 |quote=the outlines for Peru's presidential coup were first developed within the armed forces before the 1990 election. This Plan Verde was shown to President Fujimorti after the 1990 election before his inauguration. Thus, the president was able to prepare for an eventual self-coup during the first two years of his administration}}</ref><ref name="Alfredo3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |date=12 July 1993 |title=El "Plan Verde" Historia de una traición |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/310286817/El-Plan-Verde |url-status=live |journal=Oiga |volume=647 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008233742/https://www.scribd.com/document/310286817/El-Plan-Verde |archive-date=8 October 2021 |access-date=8 January 2022}}</ref> He then revised the constitution, called new congressional elections, and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Nonetheless, these policies did not benefit the poorest much, and inequality persisted despite Fujimori's economic achievements.<ref name="Avilés-2009" /><ref name="Mitrovic-2021" />

Fujimori's administration was dogged by [[Insurgency|insurgent]] groups, most notably Shining Path, which carried out attacks across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the [[Barrios Altos massacre]] and [[La Cantuta massacre]] by Government paramilitary groups, and the bombings of [[Tarata bombing|Tarata]] and [[Frecuencia Latina bombing|Frecuencia Latina]] by Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would also broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions possible to persecute left-wing political opponents.<ref name="Villalba-2022" /> Using the ''[[terruqueo]]'', a [[fearmongering]] tactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established a [[cult of personality]] by portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru.<ref name="Villalba-2022" /> Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize the [[Human rights in Peru|human rights]] violations committed in the last years of violence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Black|first=Jan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRdWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT355|title=Latin America Its Problems and Its Promise: A Multidisciplinary Introduction|year=2018|publisher=Taylor and Francis|isbn=9780429974694|page=355|quote=In September 1992, a small, elite squad within Peru's antiterrorist police (established under Garcia) captured the Shining Path leader, Abimael Guzman. Within the next few weeks, using information in Guzman's hideout, police arrested more than 1,000 suspected guerillas. During the next few years, the Shining Path was decimated.|access-date=19 March 2023|archive-date=27 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427210130/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRdWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT355|url-status=live}}</ref> His ''[[Programa Nacional de Población]]'', 'National Population Program' also resulted with the [[forced sterilization]] of at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women.<ref name="Rospigliosi-1996b" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gaussens|first1=Pierre|date=2020|title=The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s|journal=[[Canadian Journal of Bioethics]]|volume=3|issue=3|pages=180+|doi=10.7202/1073797ar |s2cid=234586692 |quote=a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Back|first1=Michele|url=https://repositoriodigital.bnp.gob.pe/bnp/recursos/2/html/Racismo-y-lenguaje/286/|title=Racialization and Language: Interdisciplinary Perspectives From Perú|last2=Zavala|first2=Virginia|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2018|pages=286–291|quote=At the end of the 1980s, a group of military elites secretly developed an analysis of Peruvian society called ''El cuaderno verde''. This analysis established the policies that the following government would have to carry out in order to defeat Shining Path and rescue the Peruvian economy from the deep crisis in which it found itself. ''El cuaderno verde'' was passed onto the national press in 1993, after some of these policies were enacted by President Fujimori. ... It was a program that resulted in the forced sterilization of Quechua-speaking women belonging to rural Andean communities. This is an example of 'ethnic cleansing' justified by the state, which claimed that a properly controlled birth rate would improve the distribution of national resources and thus reduce poverty levels. ... The Peruvian state decided to control the bodies of 'culturally backward' women, since they were considered a source of poverty and the seeds of subversive groups|access-date=4 August 2021|archive-date=4 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804105110/https://repositoriodigital.bnp.gob.pe/bnp/recursos/2/html/Racismo-y-lenguaje/286/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the [[Cenepa War]], but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into a self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.<ref name="The Economist-2007" />