Editing Picture superiority effect (section)

== Critique ==
The advantage of pictures over words is only evident when visual similarity is a reliable cue; because it takes longer to understand pictures than words (Snodgrass & McCullough, 1986<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Snodgrass|first1=Joan G|last2=McCullough|first2=Brian|date=1987|title=The role of visual similarity in picture categorisation|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.12.1.147|volume=12|issue=1 |pages=147–154|pmid=2949047 |s2cid=234873}}</ref>). Pictures are only superior to words for list learning because differentiation is easier for pictures (Dominowski & Gadlin, 1968<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1037/h0082774 |title = Imagery and paired-associate learning|journal = Canadian Journal of Psychology|volume = 22|issue = 5|pages = 336–348|year = 1968|last1 = Dominowski|first1 = Roger L.|last2 = Gadlin|first2 = Howard}}</ref>). In reverse picture superiority it was observed that learning was much slower when the responses were pictures (Postman, 1978<ref>{{Cite journal |pmid = 632757|year = 1978|last1 = Postman|first1 = L.|title = Picture-word differences in the acquisition and retention of paired associates|journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory|volume = 4|issue = 2|pages = 146–57|doi = 10.1037/0278-7393.4.2.146}}</ref>). Words produced a faster response than pictures and pictures did not have an advantages of having easier access to semantic memory or superior effect over words for dual-coding theory (Amrhein, McDaniel & Waddill 2002<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Amrhein|first1=Paul C|last2=McDaniel|first2=Mark|last3=Waddill|first3=Paula|date=2002|title=Revisiting the picture superiority effect in symbolic comparison: Do pictures provide privileged access?|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.5.843|volume=28|issue=5|pages=843–857|pmid=12219794 }}</ref>). Similarly, studies where response time deadlines have been implemented, the reverse superiority effect was reported. This is related to the dual-process model of familiarity and recollection. When deadlines for the response were short, the process of familiarity was present, along with an increased tendency to recall words over pictures. When response deadlines were longer, the process of recollection was being utilized, and a strong picture superiority effect was present.<ref name="boldini">{{cite journal | last1 = Boldini | first1 = A. | last2 = Russo | first2 = R. | last3 = Punia | first3 = S. | last4 = Avons | first4 = S. E. | year = 2007 | title = Reversing picture superiority effect: a speed-accuracy trade-off study of recognition memory | journal = Memory & Cognition | volume = 35 | issue = 1| pages = 113–123 | doi = 10.3758/BF03195948 | pmid = 17533886 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In addition, equivalent response time was reported for pictures and words for intelligence comparison (Paivio & Marschark, 1980<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Paivio|first1=Allan|last2=Marschark|first2=Marc|date=1980|title=Comparative judgements of animal intelligence and pleasantness|journal=Memory & Cognition|doi=10.3758/BF03197550|volume=8|pages=39–48|doi-access=free}}</ref>). Contrary to the assumption that pictures have faster access to the same semantic code than words do; all semantic information is stored in a single system. The only difference is that pictures and words access different features of the semantic code (te Linde, 1982<ref>{{Cite journal|last=te Linde|first=John|date=1982|title=Picture-word difference in decision latency: A test of common-coding assumptions|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.8.6.584|volume=8|issue=6|pages=584–598|pmid=6218223 }}</ref>).