Editing Plains zebra (section)

==Behaviour==
Plains zebras are nomadic and non-territorial, [[home range]]s vary from {{convert|30|km2|abbr=on}} to {{convert|600|km2|abbr=on}}, depending on the area and if the population is migratory. They are more [[Diurnality|active during the day]] and spend most of their time feeding. Other activities include [[dust bathing]], rubbing, drinking and intermittent resting which is very brief. At night, zebra activity is subdued except when threatened by predators. They may rest or sleep laying down, while one individual keeps guard.<ref name="Estes 1991"/>

===Social structure===
[[File:Zebra Botswana edit02.jpg|thumb|A zebra harem within a herd]]
The plains zebra is highly social and usually forms small family groups called [[Harem (zoology)|harem]]s, which consist of a single stallion, several mares and their recent offspring. The adult membership of a harem is highly stable, typically remaining together for months to years. Groups of all-male "[[Bachelor herd|bachelors]]" also exist. These are stable groups of up to 15 males with an age-based hierarchy, led by a young male. These males stay in their groups until they are ready to start a harem. The bachelors prepare for their adult roles with play fights and greeting/challenge rituals, which take up most of their activities.<ref name="Estes 1991"/>

Multiple harems and bachelor groups come together to form larger herds of hundreds of animals, especially during migrations. Plains zebras are unusual among harem-holding species in forming these groups. In addition, pairs of harems may create temporarily stable subgroups within a herd, allowing individuals to interact with those outside their group. Among harem-holding species, this has only been observed in primates such as the [[gelada]] and the [[hamadryas baboon]].<ref name="Rubenstein and Hack 2004">{{cite book|author=Rubenstein, D. I.; Hack, M.|year=2004|contribution=Natural and sexual selection and the evolution of multi-level societies: insights from zebras with comparisons to primates|pages=266–279|title=Sexual Selection in Primates: New and Comparative Perspectives|editor=Kappeler, P.; van Schaik, C. P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521537384}}</ref> Bachelor groups tend to be at the periphery of herds and when the herd moves, the bachelors trail behind.<ref name="Skinner"/>

Stallions form and expand their harems by abducting young mares from their natal harems.<ref name="Estes 1991"/> When a mare reaches sexual maturity and has her first [[oestrous]] cycle, she attracts the attention of nearby stallions, both bachelors and harem leaders. Her family stallion (likely her father) chases off or fights stallions attempting to abduct her. Even after a young mare is isolated from her natal harem, the fight over her continues until her oestrous cycle is over and it starts again with the next oestrous cycle. It is rare that the mare's original abductor keeps her for long.<ref name="Klingel 1969">{{cite journal | last1 = Klingel | first1 = H. | year = 1969 | title = Reproduction in the plains zebra ''Equus burchelli boehmi'': behaviour and ecological factors | journal = J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. | volume = 6 | pages = 339–345 }}</ref> When the mare finally [[Ovulation|ovulates]], the male that impregnates her keeps her for good. Thus, the mare becomes a permanent member of a new harem.<ref name="Klingel 1969"/><ref name="Adlen et al. 1995">{{cite book|author=Alden, P. C., Estes, R. D., Schlitter, D., McBride, B.|year=1995|title=National Audubon Society Field Guide to African Wildlife|publisher=Chanticleer Press, Inc|page=151|isbn=978-0679432340}}</ref> Oestrus in a female becomes less noticeable to outside males as she gets older, hence competition for older females is virtually nonexistent.<ref name="Grub 1981"/>

[[File:Fighting Burchell's Zebras in Addo National Elephant Park.JPG|thumb|left|Two male zebras fighting in the [[Addo Elephant National Park]], South Africa]]
Mares exist in a hierarchy, with the alpha female being the first to mate with the harem stallion and being the one to lead the group. When new mares are added to the group, they are met with hostility by the other mares. Thus, the harem stallion must shield the new mares until the aggression subsides.<ref name="Estes 1991"/><ref name="Adlen et al. 1995"/> The most recently added females rank lowest. Females that become unfit or weak may drop in their rank, though. The female membership of a harem stays intact, even if a new stallion takes over. During herd gatherings, family stallions may be cordial towards each other, while the mares are less tolerant.<ref name="Grub 1981"/>

A stallion defends his harem from other males. When challenged, the stallion issues a warning to the invader by rubbing nose or shoulder with him. If the warning is not heeded, a fight breaks out. Zebra fights often become very violent, with the animals biting at each other's necks, heads, or legs, wrestling to the ground and occasional kicking. Sometimes, a stallion lies still on the ground as if surrendering, but once the other male lets up, he strikes and continues the fight. Most fighting occurs over young mares in oestrus and as long as a harem stallion is healthy, he usually is not challenged. Only unhealthy stallions have their harems taken over and even then, the new stallion gradually takes over, pushing the old one out without a fight.<ref name="Estes 1991"/>

===Communication===
[[File:Equus quagga (185908025).jpg|thumb|right|Zebras mutually grooming]]
At least six different calls have been documented for the plains zebra. One is its distinctive, high-pitched, contact call (commonly called "[[bark (sound)|barking]]") heard as "a-''ha'', a-''ha'', a-''ha''" or "kwa-ha, kaw-ha, ha, ha"<ref name="Grub 1981"/> also transcribed as "kwahaah",<ref name=Max>{{cite news |last=Max|first=D. T. |title=Can You Revive an Extinct Animal? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/01/magazine/01taxidermy.html |access-date=2014-03-03 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=1 January 2006}}</ref> or "oug-ga".<ref name="1911 quagga">{{EB1911 |noprescript=1 |wstitle=Quagga}}</ref> The species name ''quagga'' is derived from the [[Khoikhoi]] word for "zebra" and is [[Onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]] for its call.<ref name=skinner>{{cite book |last1=Skinner |first1=J. D. |title=The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion |year=2005 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-84418-5 |pages=537–546 |edition = 3rd |last2=Chimimba |first2=C. T. |chapter=Equidae}}</ref> When a predator is sighted, a zebra makes a two-syllable alarm call. A loud snort is made when moving in cover of potential danger. When in contentment, a zebra makes a more drawn-out snort. Males make a short, high-pitched squeal when hurt, and foals  emit a drawn-out wail when in distress.<ref name="Grub 1981"/>

Two main facial expressions are made by zebras; the greeting and threat. In both cases, the lips are pulled back and chewing motions are made. Greeting involves the ears sticking up and directing forward; while the threat involves the ears down.<ref name="Grub 1981"/> Zebras strengthen their social bonds with [[Social grooming|grooming]]. Members of a harem nip and scrape along the neck, withers, and back with their teeth and lips. Mothers and foals groom the most often, followed by siblings. Grooming shows social status and eases aggressive behaviour.<ref name="Estes 1991"/>

===Reproduction and parenting===
[[File:Burchell's zebra (Equus quagga burchellii) suckling.jpg|thumb|Mother zebra nursing her foal]]
[[File:Grévy's × Plains Zebra, ol pejeta imported from iNaturalist photo 401473965 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Grévy's × plains zebra hybrid, alongside plains zebras.]]
The stallion mates with all his mares. Males exhibit the [[flehmen response]] to test for female receptivity, which involves the upper lip curling back to smell for urine (via the [[vomeronasal organ]]). The female signals her readiness for copulation by straddling her legs and raising her tail. The gestation period lasts around a year, and a single young is produced. Mares may give birth to one foal every twelve months. The birthing peak is during the rainy season. A mare gives birth within the vicinity of her group and while lying down on her side. The newborn foal weighs {{convert|30|–|35|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and the [[afterbirth]] is rarely consumed.<ref name="Skinner"/><ref name="Kingdon 1988"/><ref name="Grub 1981"/>

A newborn is capable of standing almost immediately and starts to eat grass within a week. Early on, a mother zebra keeps any other zebra away from her foal, including the stallion, the other mares, and even her previous offspring. Later, though, they all bond. Within the group, a foal has the same rank as its mother.<ref name="Grub 1981"/><ref name="Kingdon 1988"/><ref name="Nunez2011">{{cite book|author=Nunez, C. M. V.; Rubenstein, D. I.; Asa, C. S.|year=2011|contribution=Zebra Reproduction|title=Equine Reproduction|editor=McKinnon, A. O.; Squires, E. L.; Vaala, E. L.; Varner, D. D.|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|pages=2851–2865|isbn=978-0813819716}}</ref><ref name="Skinner"/> The stallion is generally intolerant of foals that are not his, and zebras may practice [[Infanticide (zoology)|infanticide]] and [[feticide]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ivb.cz/folia/54/3/258-262.pdf |title=Further evidence for male infanticide and feticide in captive plains zebras |access-date=2012-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222174717/http://www.ivb.cz/folia/54/3/258-262.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Mortality for foals is high in their first year of life and is usually caused by predation. However, zebra young are afforded more protection than those of species like wildebeest and [[hartebeest]]. A foal is usually weaned at around eleven months, but may suckle for longer. Females reach puberty before three years, and males after five or six. Young male zebras eventually leave their family groups as the relationship with their mothers fades after the birth of a sibling. The young stallion then seeks out other young stallions for company. Young females may stay in the harem until they are abducted by another stallion.<ref name="Kingdon 1988"/><ref name="Estes 1991"/><ref name="Nunez2011"/><ref name="Skinner">{{cite book|author=Skinner, J. D.; Chimimba, C. T.|year=2006|title=The Mammals of the Southern African Sub-region|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=243–246|isbn=978-0521844185}}</ref> Plains zebras have an average lifespan of 25 years in the wild.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-09-10 |title=Plains Zebra {{!}} National Geographic |url= https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/plains-zebra |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210225171557/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/plains-zebra |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 25, 2021 |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref>