Editing Plasmodium (section)

=== Vertebrates ===
[[File:Relative incidence of Plasmodium (malaria) species by country of origin for imported cases to non-endemic countries.png|thumb|Relative incidence of Plasmodium species by country of origin for imported cases to non-endemic countries<ref name="Tatem2017">{{Cite journal |author1=Tatem AJ |author2=Jia P |author3=Ordanovich D |author4=Falkner M |author5=Huang Z |author6=Howes R |author7=Hay S |author8=Gething, P W |author9=Smith, D L |display-authors=etal |title=The geography of imported malaria to non-endemic countries: a meta-analysis of nationally reported statistics |journal=Lancet Infect Dis |year=2017 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=98–107 |pmid=27777030 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30326-7 |pmc=5392593 }}</ref>]]

''Plasmodium'' parasites have been described in a broad array of vertebrate hosts including reptiles, birds, and mammals.<ref name=Manguin/> While many species can infect more than one vertebrate host, they are generally specific to one of these [[Class (biology)|classes]] (such as birds).<ref name=Manguin>{{cite book|title=Biodiversity of Malaria in the world |date=2008 |author1=Manguin, S. |author2=Carnevale, P. |author3=Mouchet, J. |author4=Coosemans, M. |author5=Julvez, J. |author6=Richard-Lenoble, D. |author7=Sircoulon, J. |publisher=John Libbey |isbn=978-2-7420-0616-8 |pages=13–15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sk0JBAAAQBAJ&q=malaria+reptile&pg=PA13 |access-date=15 March 2018}}</ref>

Humans are primarily infected by [[List of Plasmodium species infecting primates#Species infecting humans|five species]] of ''Plasmodium'', with the overwhelming majority of severe disease and death caused by ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]''.<ref name=Scully>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.mib.2017.10.006|pmid=29096194|pmc=5733638 |title=Molecular interactions governing host-specificity of blood stage malaria parasites|journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology |volume=40|pages=21–31 |year=2017 |last1=Scully |first1=Erik J. |last2=Kanjee|first2=Usheer|last3=Duraisingh|first3=Manoj T.}}</ref> Some species that infect humans can also infect other primates, and zoonoses of certain species (e.g. ''[[Plasmodium knowlesi|P. knowlesi]]'') from other primates to humans are common.<ref name=Scully/> Non-human primates also contain a [[List of Plasmodium species infecting primates|variety of ''Plasmodium'' species]] that do not generally infect humans. Some of these can cause severe disease in primates, while others can remain in the host for prolonged periods without causing disease.<ref name=Nunn>{{cite book |author1=Nunn, C. |author2=Altizer, S. |date=2006 |title=Infectious Diseases in Primates: Behavior, Ecology and Evolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1s0TDAAAQBAJ&q=plasmodium&pg=PA254 |edition=1st |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=253–254 |isbn=978-0198565840 |access-date=16 March 2018}}</ref> Many other mammals also carry [[Vinckeia|''Plasmodium'' species]], such as a variety of [[rodents]], [[ungulates]], and [[bat]]s. Again, some species of ''Plasmodium'' can cause severe disease in some of these hosts, while many appear not to.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The rediscovery of malaria parasites of ungulates |journal=Parasitology |volume=143 |issue=12 |date=2016 |pages=1501–1508 |vauthors=Templeton TJ, Martinsen E, Kaewthamasorn M, Kaneko O |doi=10.1017/S0031182016001141|pmid=27444556 |s2cid=22397021 }}</ref>

[[List of Plasmodium species infecting birds|Over 150 species of ''Plasmodium'']] infect a broad variety of birds. In general each species of ''Plasmodium'' infects one to a few species of birds.<ref name=Valkiunas2>{{cite book|title=Avian Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia |author=Valkiunas, Gediminas |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9780415300971 |date=2004 |chapter=Specificity and general Principles of Species Identification |pages=67–81}}</ref> ''Plasmodium'' parasites that infect birds tend to persist in a given host for years or for the life time of the host, although in some cases ''Plasmodium'' infections can result in severe illness and rapid death.<ref name=Valkiunas>{{cite book|title=Avian Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia |author=Valkiunas, Gediminas |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9780415300971 |date=2004 |chapter=General Section - Life Cycle and Morphology of Plasmodiidae Species |pages=27–35}}</ref><ref name=Valkiunas3>{{cite book|title=Avian Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia |author=Valkiunas, Gediminas  |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9780415300971 |date=2004 |chapter=Pathogenicity |pages=83–111}}</ref> Unlike with ''Plasmodium'' species infecting mammals, those infecting birds are distributed across the globe.<ref name=Valkiunas2/>

[[List of Plasmodium species infecting reptiles|Species from several subgenera]] of ''Plasmodium'' infect diverse [[reptiles]]. ''Plasmodium'' parasites have been described in most lizard [[Family (biology)|families]] and, like avian parasites, are spread worldwide.<ref name=Zug>{{cite book|title=Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles |editor1=Zug, G. R. |editor2=Vitt, L. J. |isbn=978-0127826202 |publisher=Academic Press |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqgpcru2sfwC&q=malaria+reptile&pg=PA152 |access-date=16 March 2018 |page=152}}</ref> Again, parasites can result either in severe disease or be apparently asymptomatic depending on the parasite and the host.<ref name=Zug/>

A number of [[Antimalarial medication|drugs]] have been developed over the years to control ''Plasmodium'' infection in vertebrate hosts, particularly in humans. [[Quinine]] was used as a frontline antimalarial from the 17th century until widespread [[antimicrobial resistance|resistance]] emerged in the early 20th century.<ref name="Blasco2018">{{cite journal |last1=Blasco |first1=Benjamin |last2=Leroy |first2=Didier |last3=Fidock |first3=David A. |author-link3=David A. Fidock |year=2017 |title=Antimalarial drug resistance: Linking Plasmodium falciparum parasite biology to the clinic |journal=Nature Medicine |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=917–928 |doi=10.1038/nm.4381 |pmc=5747363 |pmid=28777791}}</ref> Resistance to quinine spurred the development of a broad array of antimalarial medications through the 20th century including [[chloroquine]], [[proguanil]], [[atovaquone]], [[sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine]], [[mefloquine]], and [[artemisinin]].<ref name=Blasco2018/> In all cases, parasites resistant to a given drug have emerged within a few decades of the drugs deployment.<ref name=Blasco2018/> To combat this, antimalarial drugs are frequently used in combination, with [[artemisinin combination therapy|artemisinin combination therapies]] currently the gold standard for treatment.<ref name=Cowman2016>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2016.07.055 |pmid=27768886|title=Malaria: Biology and Disease |journal=Cell |volume=167|issue=3 |pages=610–624|year=2016|last1=Cowman |first1=Alan F|last2=Healer|first2=Julie |last3=Marapana |first3=Danushka|last4=Marsh |first4=Kevin|doi-access=free}}</ref> In general, antimalarial drugs target the life stages of ''Plasmodium'' parasites that reside within vertebrate red blood cells, as these are the stages that tend to cause disease.<ref name=Haldar2018>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nrmicro.2017.161 |pmid=29355852|pmc=6371404|title=Drug resistance in Plasmodium |journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology|volume=16|issue=3 |pages=156–170 |year=2018|last1=Haldar |first1=Kasturi |last2=Bhattacharjee|first2=Souvik|last3=Safeukui|first3=Innocent}}</ref> However, drugs targeting other stages of the parasite life cycle are under development in order to prevent infection in travelers and to prevent transmission of sexual stages to insect hosts.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/med.21486 |pmid=29372568 |title=Multistage inhibitors of the malaria parasite: Emerging hope for chemoprotection and malaria eradication |journal=Medicinal Research Reviews |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=1511–1535 |year=2018 |last1=Poonam |last2=Gupta |first2=Yash |last3=Gupta |first3=Nikesh |last4=Singh |first4=Snigdha |last5=Wu |first5=Lidong |last6=Chhikara |first6=Bhupender Singh |last7=Rawat |first7=Manmeet |last8=Rathi |first8=Brijesh |s2cid=25711437 }}</ref>

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File:Saving_Lives_with_SMS_for_Life.jpg|A clinic for treating human malaria in Tanzania
File:Anolis carolinensis.jpg|Over 3000 species of lizard, including the [[Carolina anole]] (''Anolis carolinensis''), carry some 90 kinds of malaria.
</gallery>