Editing Profanity (section)

== Grammar and function ==
[[File:Martin Van Maele - La Grande Danse macabre des vifs - 01.jpg|thumb|upright|Exposing the buttocks is considered profane in many cultures.]]
Profanity is used to indicate the speaker's emotional state,{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=268}}{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|p=259}} and the negative associations of swear words mean they are often emotionally charged.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=1}}{{Sfn|Johnson|Lewis|2010|p=108}} Expressions of anger and frustration are the most common reason for swearing.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=7}} Such expressions are associated with abusive profanity,{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|pp=259–260}} which is the most negatively charged and is specifically chosen to insult or offend the subject. This may take the form of a direct insult, such as calling the subject an ''[[asshole]]'', or by addressing the subject profanely, such as telling someone to ''fuck off''.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=7}} It can also be used to indicate [[contempt]].{{Sfn|Johnson|Lewis|2010|p=108}} [[Cathartic]] profanity is used as an expression of annoyance,{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=7}} and it is often considered less rude than profanity directed at a specific subject.{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=270}} Profanity can be used as a statement of agreement or disagreement, though disagreement is more common; ''the hell it is'' and ''my ass'' are examples of English profanities that indicate disagreement.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=32}} The potent nature of swearing means that it can be used to gain attention,{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=8}} including the use of profanity to cause shock.{{Sfn|Johnson|Lewis|2010|p=108}} In some circumstances, swearing can be used as a form of politeness, such as when a speaker gives positive reinforcement by describing something as ''pretty fucking good''.{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=270}}

Propositional or controlled swearing is done consciously, and speakers choose their wording and how to express it. This is more common when using descriptive swearing. Non-propositional or reflexive swearing is done involuntarily as an emotional response to excitement or displeasure.{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|pp=269–270}}{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=37}} Frequent swearing can become a habit, even if the speaker does not have a specific intention of being profane.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|p=261}}

Profanity is often used as a slot filler, which functions as a [[grammatical modifier|modifier]],{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=33–35}} and modifying a noun with a swear is commonly used to indicate dislike.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=34}} A profane word can modify words as an adjective, such as in ''it's a bloody miracle'', or as an adverb, such as in ''they drove damn fast''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=33}} One type of adverbial profanity is to use it as a [[modal adverb]], such as in ''no you fucking can't''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=34}} Compound words can be created to create a new modifier, such as ''pisspoor''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=33}} Many European languages use profanity to add emphasis to question words in the form of ''who the hell are you?'' or with a [[preposition]] in the form of ''what in God's name is that?''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=11–12}} Modifier profanities are frequently used as an [[expletive attributive]], or [[intensifier]]s that put emphasis on specific ideas.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=22}} These commonly take the form of interjections to express strong emotion, such as the English examples ''bloody hell'' and ''for fuck's sake''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=22}} Such stand-alone profanities are among the most common in natural speech.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=30}} [[Expletive infixation]] is the use of a profane word as an intensifier inside of another word, such as modifying ''absolutely'' to become ''abso-fucking-lutely''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=40}} Some languages use swear words that can generically replace nouns and verbs. This is most common in Russian.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=35|loc=Chapter 8}}

Though profanity exists in nearly all cultures, there is variation in when it is used and how it affects the meaning of speech.{{Sfn|Van Lancker|Cummings|1999|p=84}} Each language has unique profane phrases influenced by culture.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=44}} Japanese is sometimes described as having no swear words, though it has a concept of {{Lang|ja-latn|warui kotoba}} ({{Translation|bad words}}) that are not based on taboos but are otherwise functionally equivalent to swears.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|pp=43–44}} One linguistic theory proposes that [[sound symbolism]] influences the pronunciation of profanities. This includes the suggestion that profanities are more likely to include [[plosive]]s, but this remains unstudied, especially outside of [[Indo-European languages]].{{Sfn|Lev-Ari|McKay|2023|p=1104}}

The use of profanity is the most common way to express taboo ideas.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=34}} The dichotomy between its taboo nature and its prevalence in day-to-day life is studied as the "swearing paradox".{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|p=260}} It is used casually in some social settings, which can facilitate bonding and camaraderie, denote a social environment as informal, and mark the speaker as part of an [[in-group]].{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|pp=7–8}} The way speakers use profanity in social settings allows them to project their identity and personality through communication style,{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|pp=3, 7–8}} and in some circumstances it can be used as a method used to impress one's peers.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|p=261}} Stylistic swearing is used to add emphasis or intensity to speech,{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=7}}{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=4–5}} which can be used to emphasize an idea in an aggressive or authoritative fashion, make an idea memorable, or produce a comedic effect.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|pp=7–8}}
[[File:Givingthefinger.jpg|thumb|[[The finger]], an obscene hand gesture|upright=0.8|alt=The front of a man's hand with his middle finger raised]]
Profanity often presents as [[formulaic language]], in which specific words can only be used in specific phrases, often developed through [[grammaticalization]].{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=18–20}} Many of these phrases allow words to be swapped, presenting variations on a phrase like ''what in the bloody heck'', ''why in the flamin' hell'', and ''how in the fuckin' hell''.{{Sfn|Van Lancker|Cummings|1999|pp=85–86}} Profane phrases can be used as [[anaphora (linguistics)|anaphoric pronouns]], such as replacing ''him'' with ''the bastard'' in ''tell the bastard to mind his own business''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=34}} They can similarly be used to support a noun instead of replacing it, such as in ''John is a boring son of a bitch''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=35}} Though profanity is usually associated with taboo words, obscene non-verbal acts such as [[hand gesture]]s may be considered profane. [[Spitting]] in someone's direction has historically been seen as a strong insult.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=37}} Exposure of certain body parts, often the genitals or buttocks, is also seen as profane in many parts of the world.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=39}}

Though ''cursing'' often refers to the use of profanity in general, it can refer to more specific phrases of harm such as ''damn you'' or ''a pox on you''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=31}} Historically, people swore by or to the ideas that they were invoking, instead of swearing at something.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xv}} Oaths in which the speaker swears by something, such as ''by God'', can be used as interjections or intensifiers, typically without religious connotation. This is especially common in Arabic.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=31}} Self-immolating oaths, such as ''I'll be damned'', involve speakers casting harm upon themselves.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xvii}} These are often invoked as conditional statements based on whether something is true—''I'll be damned if...''{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=31–32}} Profanity directed at an individual can take the form of an unfriendly suggestion. English examples include ''go to hell'' and ''kiss my ass''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=32}} Some profanities, such as ''[[your mother]]!'', imply taboos or swear words without using them explicitly.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=5, 32}}