Editing Psychoanalysis (section)

==History==
===1885–1899===
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| Image = Words "Die Psychoanalyse" in Sigmund Freud's handwriting, 1938.jpg
| Caption = The words {{lang|de|Die Psychoanalyse}} in Sigmund Freud's handwriting, 1938
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| ICD9 = {{ICD9proc|94.31}}
| MeshID = D011572
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In 1885, Freud was given the opportunity to study at the [[Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital|Salpêtrière]] in Paris under the famous neurologist [[Jean-Martin Charcot]]. Charcot had specialised in the field of [[hysterical paralysis]] and established hypnosis as a research tool, the experimental application of which actually made it possible to eliminate [[Signs and symptoms|symptoms]] of this kind. Paralysed people could suddenly walk again, and blind ones could see. Although this 'messianic' effect is not known to last long, as Freud soon discovered in his own experiments, the phenomenon of hypnotic false-healing played a decisive role in reinforcing his idea of a purely psychological background to the complex neurotic clinical picture.

A few years later (1887–88), he worked as a [[neurologist]] in a children's hospital (the Public Institute for Children's Diseases in [[Vienna]]), where some little patients suffered from neurotic symptoms. All attempts to develop a suitable treatment failed; in fact, the detailed examinations did not reveal any organic defects. In the [[monograph]] written on this subject, Freud documents his [[Differential diagnosis|differential-diagnostically]] supported suspicion that neurotic symptoms probably would have psychological causes.<ref>Stengel, E. 1953. ''Sigmund Freud on Aphasia (1891)''. New York: [[International Universities Press]].</ref>

Finishing the ineffective hypnosis, the idea of psychoanalysis began to receive serious attention; Freud initially called it ''[[Free association (psychology)|free association]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tarzian |first1=Martin |last2=Ndrio |first2=Mariana |last3=Fakoya |first3=Adegbenro O |title=An Introduction and Brief Overview of Psychoanalysis |journal=Cureus |date=2023 |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=e45171 |doi=10.7759/cureus.45171 |doi-access=free |issn=2168-8184 |pmid=37842377|pmc=10575551 }}</ref> His first attempt to explain neurotical symptoms on this path was presented in ''[[Studies on Hysteria]]'' (1895). Co-authored with [[Josef Breuer]], this is generally seen as the birth of psychoanalysis.<ref name="Freud 1895" /> The work based on their partly joint treatment of [[Bertha Pappenheim]], referred to by the pseudonym "[[Anna O.]]" Bertha herself had dubbed the treatment ''[[talking cure]]''. Breuer, a distinguished physician, was astonished but remained unspecific; while Freud formulated his hypothesis that Anna's hystera seemed to be caused by distressing but unconscious experiences related to sexuality, basing his assumption on corresponding free associations made by the young women.<ref name="Freud 1895">Freud, Sigmund, and [[Josef Breuer]]. 1955 [1895]. ''[[Studies on Hysteria]]'', ''[[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|Standard Editions]]'' 2, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]].</ref> For example, she sometimes liked to jokingly rename her talking cure as ''[[chimney sweeping]]'', an association about the fairy tale through which part of a pregnant woman's house 'the [[Stork#Associations with fertility|stork' gives birth]] to the baby – or in [[Jacques Lacan|Lacan's]] words: "The more Anna provided [[Sign (semiotics)|signifers]], the more she chattered on, the better it went."<ref>Jacques Lacan, ''The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis'' (London 1994) p. 157</ref> See also [[Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious|''Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious'']] (1905).

Around the same time, Freud had started to develop a [[Neurology|neurological]] hypothesis about mental phenomena such as memory, but soon abandoned this attempt and left it unpublished.<ref>Freud, Sigmund. 1966 [1895]. "[http://users.clas.ufl.edu/burt/freud%20fleiss%20letters/200711781-013.pdf Project for a Scientific Psychology]." Pp. 347–445 in ''[[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|Standard Editions]]'' 3, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]].</ref> Insights into neuronal-biochemical processes that store experiences in the brain – like engraving the proverbial [[tabula rasa]] with some code – belongs to the [[Physiology|physiological]] branch of science and lead in a different direction of research than the psychological question of what the differences between consciousness and unconsciousness are. After some thought about a suitable term, Freud called his new instrument and field of research ''psychoanalysis'', introduced in his essay “Inheritance and Etiology of Neuroses”, written and published in French in 1896.<ref>Freud, Sigmund. 1896. "[http://psychanalyse-paris.com/1275-L-Heredite-et-l-etiologie-des.html L'hérédité et l'étiologie des névroses]" [Heredity and the etiology of neuroses]. ''[[Revue neurologique]]'' 4(6):161–69. via Psychanalyste Paris.</ref><ref>[[Élisabeth Roudinesco|Roudinesco, Élisabeth]], and Michel Plon. 2011 [1997]. ''Dictionnaire de la psychanalyse''. Paris: [[Fayard]]. p. 1216.</ref>

====The abuse thesis====
In 1896, Freud also published his [[Freud's seduction theory|''seduction theory'']], in which he assumed as certain that he had uncovered repressed memories of incidents of sexual abuse in each of his previous patients. This type of [[Sexual arousal|sexual excitations]] of the child would therefore be the prerequisite for the later development of [[hysteria|hysterical]] and other kinds of neurotic symptoms.<ref name="Freud 1896">Freud, Sigmund. 1953 [1896]. "[[The Aetiology of Hysteria]]." Pp. 191–221 in ''[[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|The Standard Edition]]'' 3, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]]. [http://courses.washington.edu/freudlit/Hysteria.Notes.html Lay summary] via [[University of Washington]].</ref> Later the same year, Freud noticed a contradiction to his abuse thesis; he reports of patients who expressed their "emphatic disbelief" in this respect: that they "had no feeling of remembering the [[Infantile sexuality|infantile sexual]] scenes".<ref name="Freud 1896" />{{Rp|204}} In the course of his further research, Freud began to doubt his thesis that such abuse should be almost omnipresent in our society.

Initially, he expressed his suspicion of having made a mistake in private to his friend and colleague [[Wilhelm Fliess]] in 1898; but it took another 8 years before he had clarified the obscure connections sufficiently to publicly revoke his thesis, stating the reasons.<ref name="Freud 1906">Freud, Sigmund. 1953 [1906]. "My Views on the Part Played by Sexuality in the Aetiology of the Neuroses." Pp. 269–79 in ''[[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|The Standard Edition]]'' 7, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]].</ref> (Freud's final position on the origin of neurosis in general is summarized in his late work ''[[Civilization and Its Discontents|The Discomfort in Culture]]''. According to this, the causes do not lie in general sexual abuse of children, but in the way in which each generation educates the next to adopt the rules of coexistence known as morality. See also ''[[The Future of an Illusion]]''.)

====The secrecy mechanism====
In the mid-1890s, he was still upholding his hypothesis of sexual abuse. In this context, he reported on fantasies of several patients, which on the one hand would point to memories of scenes of [[infantile masturbation]] stored in the unconscious, while the more conscious parts on the other hand would aim to make these morally forbidden acts of childish pleasure unrecognisable, to cover up them. The interesting point for Freud here was not so much the secretiveness itself (a well-known behaviour of [[Victorian era]]), but the following twofold realisation: That children – at that time considered as ''innocent'' little angels – initiate pleasurable actions of their own accord (have ‘drives’ at all, as later assigned to the ‘id’); and the presumably by aducation initiated emergence of a [[Psychopathology|psychopathological]] mechanism, whose ability consists in being able to hide impulses of this kind from one's own consciousness.<ref name="Freud 1906" /> Short after, he assumed that the same findings would have some evidence for a kind of [[oedipus complex|Oedipal]] desires.

====From blood disgrace to self-castration====
In the tragedy ''[[Oedipus]]'', to which Freud refers, there occurs no sexual exploitation of a child by its parents or other adults. Sophocles' poetic treatment of this ancient Greek myth is about [[Oedipus]]' own sexual desire addressed to his mother Jocasta – admittedly as an already genitally mature man and without knowing about the close blood relationship, including an not less unconscious patricide – which the woman reciprocates just as unsuspectingly. Freud interprets the passage where Oedipus – after realising his serious violation of the moral-totemic [[incest taboo]]  – pokes out his eyes with the golden needle clasp of his wife's and mother's nightdress (while Jocasta commits suicide) as a manifestation of the same ‘cover-up’ mechanism that he began to uncover in the above-mentioned fantasies. In his eyes, psychoanalysis works in the opposite direction to this mechanism of preconscious self-delusion, by bringing the due to incest taboo have been repressed desires (the ‘id’) back into the realm of inner perception, own conscious thinking.<ref>Freud, Sigmund. 1959 [1925]. "[https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~cavitch/pdf-library/Freud_Autobiographical_Study.pdf An Autobiographical Study]." Pp. 7–74 in [[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|''Standard Edition'']] 20, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]]. – via [[University of Pennsylvania]].[http://www.mhweb.org/mpc_course/freud.pdf Transcribed version] via Michigan Mental Health Networker.</ref> This raised the question for Freud of the first origin of moral prohibitions. A field of research that led him deep into the evolutionary and cultural (prä)history of mankind (see Darwin's primal horde; its abolition through patricide and introduction of monogamy in [[Totem and Taboo]]) and which, according to his own information, he had to leave unfinished as an untested hypothesis due to the lack of [[Kasakela chimpanzee community|primate research]].<ref name="Massenpsychologie und Ich-Analyse" /><ref name="Sigmund Freud: Der Mann Moses und d" />

====The meaning of dreams====
In 1899, Freud's work had progressed far enough that he was able to publish ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]''. This, for him, was the most important of his writings,<ref>Gay, Peter. 1988. ''Freud: A Life for Our Time''. New York: [[W. W. Norton & Company|W. W. Norton]]. pp. 3–4, 103.</ref><ref>Freud, Sigmund. 1913 [1899]. ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]''. [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]].</ref> as it formulated the realisation that every dream contains a symbolically disguised message that can be decoded with the help of the dreamer's [[Free association (psychology)|free associations]]. The purpose of every dream is, therefore, to inform the dreamer about his complex inner situation: in essence, a conflict arising from the demands of innate needs and externally imposed behavioural rules that prohibit their satisfaction. Freud called the former the ''primary process'', taking place predominantly in the unconscious, and the latter the ''secondary process'' of predominantly conscious, more or less coherent thoughts.

[[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|280px|The [[iceberg]] metaphor. It's often used to illustrate the spatial relationship between Freud's first model and the new concepts (id, ego, superego), synthesising both into the structural model. Disadvantage: an iceberg contains no libido: the purpose-cause (source) of all drive-energetic dynamics and economy of the living soul (biological organism as a whole).]]
Freud summarised this view in his first model of the soul. Known as the ''[[Id, ego and superego#Advantages of the structural model|topological model]]'', it divides the organism into three areas or systems: The unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious. Sexual needs belong to the unconscious and are forced to remain there if the contents of the conscious mind ward them off. This is the case in societies that generally consider all extra- and premarital sexual activity (including homoeroticism, that of biblical [[Onan]] and incest) to be a ‘sin’, passing this value on to the next generation through concrete or threatened punishments. Moral education creates fears of punitive violence or the deprivation of love in the child's soul. They are stored neuronally in the preconscious and influence the consciousness in the sense of the imprinted rules of behaviour. (Freud's second model of the soul, [[Id, ego and superego|the three-instance or structural model]], introduces here a clearer distinction. ''Topology'' is no longer the decisive factor, but the specific ''function'' of each of the three instances. This new model did not replace the first one: it integrated it.)

''The Interpretation of Dreams'' includes the first comprehensive conceptualisation of [[Oedipus complex]]: The little boy admires his father because of the mental and physical advantages of the adult man and wants to become like him, but also comes into conflict with him over the women around, cause of the [[incest taboo|taboo of incest]]. This initiates – growing up from the id – anger that can escalate into a deadly urge for revenge against the father. Impulses that the little boy cannot act out (not least due to the child's deep dependence on his parents' love) and therefore are repressed into the unconscious. Symptomatically, this inner situation manifests itself as a feeling of inferiority, even a castration complex, genital phobia. The myth of Oedipus is about the attempt to liberate the 'amputated' potency of the id, but it fails because of the remaining unconscious motives. As the ego is overwhelmed by the punitive fear of the moral content of its ‘preconscious’ superego, it cuts off the instinctive desire for self-knowledge from itself (blinds itself).

Attempts to find a female equivalent of the Oedipus complex have not yielded good results. According to Freud, girls, because of their anatomically different genitals, cannot identify with their father, nor develop a [[castration anxiety|castration phobia]] as sons do, so this syndrome seems to be reserved for the opposite sex.<ref>Sigmund Freud, ''On Sexuality'' (Penguin Freud Library 7) p. 342.</ref> Feminist psychoanalysts like [[:de:Christiane Olivier (Psychoanalytikerin)|Christiane Olivier]] debate whether the father of psychoanalysis might have been a victim of [[sexism]] in this case. To compensate for their supposed shortcoming, they postulate a ''Jocasta complex'' consisting of an [[incest]]uous desire of mothers for their infant sons;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olivier |first1=Christiane |title=Jokastes Kinder: Die Psyche der Frau im Schatten der Mutter}}</ref> but other analysts criticise this naming (and attempt of generalisation), since Sophocles' [[Jocasta]] in particular does not exhibit this behaviour. (Instead, she gave her baby away to be killed, instigated by her husband and the oracle that a grown-up son would kill him.) The witch's special interest in [[Hansel and Gretel|little Hansel]] – while she merely abuses his sister as a kitchen slave – offers much better evidence here, although it's still unclear whether such ''Crunchy house syndrome'' can be as widespread in our form of society as the Oedipus itself. However, Christiane O. courageously confronted her own problems in her relationship with her son and husband.

====Critics of abuse thesis, Freud and psychoanalysis in general====
In the later part of the 20th century, several Freud researchers questioned the author's perception that his patients had informed him of childhood sexual abuse. Some of them argued that Freud had imposed his preconceived view on his patients, while others raised the suspicion of conscious forgery.<ref>Cioffi, F. 1998 [1973]. "Was Freud a Liar?" Pp. 199–204 in ''Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience''. [[Open Court Publishing Company|Open Court]].</ref><ref>Schimek, J. G. 1987. "Fact and Fantasy in the Seduction Theory: A Historical Review." ''[[Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association]]'' 35:937–65.</ref><ref>Esterson, Allen. 1998. "Jeffrey Masson and Freud's seduction theory: A new fable based on old myths (synopsis in Human Nature Review)." ''[[History of the Human Sciences]]'' 11(1):1–21. {{doi|10.1177/095269519801100101}}.</ref>

These are two different arguments. The latter tries to prove that Freud deliberately lied in order to make the allegedly unfounded psychoanalysis appear as a legitimate science; the former assumes an unknowingly committed act (countertransference). Freud, aware of his retraction of the abuse thesis, replied at various places in his work in the same way to both types of argument: That natural science is a process based on [[trial and error]]. A slow but sure becoming, in which it is impossible to have precisely defined concepts from the outset, respectively phenomena that from now on have been clarified without any gaps and contradictions. "Indeed, even physics would have missed out on its entire development if it had been forced to wait until its concepts of matter, energy, gravity and others reached the desirable clarity and precision."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Freud |first1=Sigmund |title=Gesammelte Werke. Bd. 14. Selbstdarstellung |pages=84–85}}</ref>

The psychologist [[Frank Sulloway]] points out in his book ''Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend'' that the theories and hypotheses of psychoanalysis are anchored in the findings of contemporary biology. He mentions the profound influence of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of evolution on Freud and quotes this sense from the writings of [[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]], [[Wilhelm Fliess]], [[Richard von Krafft-Ebing|Krafft-Ebing]] and [[Havelock Ellis]].<ref name="Borch-Jacobsen 2012" />{{Rp|30}}

Psychoanalyse further was claimed as pseudoscience, cause it's central assumption of the three interlocking functions ([[Id, ego and superego|needs, consciousness, memory]]) shall [[unfalsifiable]].<ref name="Popper" /> Freud himself, who related the consciousness aspekt and the organic one of his "soul" model with the classical [[Mind–body problem|mind-body problem]], proposed to explain these "two end points of our knowledge" in the sense of Kant's [[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=Abriss der Psychoanalyse |others=Gesammelte Werke |edition=17 |location=Frankfurt am Main |publication-date=1972 |pages=63–138, here: 67–69 |language=De}}</ref><ref name="HP">{{Citation |author=[[Aikaterini Fotopoulou]] |title=The history and progress of neuropsychoanalysis |date=May 2012 |work=From the Couch to the Lab |pages=12–24 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/med/9780199600526.003.0002 |isbn=978-0-19-960052-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schött |first1=Margerete |last2=Schmidt |first2=Anna-Christine |date=2021 |title=neuropsychoanalysis |url=https://dorsch.hogrefe.com/stichwort/neuropsychoanalyse |journal=Dorsch Lexikon der Psychologie |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Blass |first1=Rachel B. |last2=Carmeli |first2=Zvi |date=February 2007 |title=The case against neuropsychoanalysis. On fallacies underlying psychoanalysis' latest scientific trend and its negative impact on psychoanalytic discourse |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17244565 |journal=The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis |volume=88 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=19–40 |doi=10.1516/6nca-a4ma-mfq7-0jtj |issn=0020-7578 |pmid=17244565}}</ref>

===1900–1940s===
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In 1905, Freud published ''[[Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality]]'' in which he laid out his discovery of the [[Psychosexual development|''psychosexual phases'']], which categorised early childhood development into five stages depending on what sexual affinity a child possessed at the stage:<ref>Freud, Sigmund. 1955 [1905]. "[[Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality]]." ''[[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|Standard Editions]]'' 7, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]].</ref>

* Oral (ages 0–2);
* Anal (2–4);
* Phallic-oedipal or First genital (3–6);
* Latency (6–puberty); and
* Mature genital (puberty onward).

[[File:Freud at Clark University in 1909.jpg|thumb|Group photograph of participants in the Psychology, Pedagogy and School Hygiene Conference at [[Clark University]] in [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] with Freud present, 6 September 1909.]]
His early formulation included the idea that because of societal restrictions, sexual wishes were repressed into an unconscious state, and that the energy of these unconscious wishes could be result in anxiety or physical symptoms. Early treatment techniques, including hypnotism and [[abreaction]], were designed to make the unconscious conscious in order to relieve the pressure and the apparently resulting symptoms. This method would later on be left aside by Freud, giving free association a bigger role.

In ''[[On Narcissism]]'' (1914), Freud turned his attention to the titular subject of [[narcissism]].<ref>Freud, Sigmund. 1955 [1914]. "[https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~cavitch/pdf-library/Freud_SE_On_Narcissism_complete.pdf On Narcissism]." Pp. 73–102 in [[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|''Standard Edition'']] 14, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]]. – via [[University of Pennsylvania]].</ref> Freud characterized the difference between energy directed at the self versus energy directed at others using a system known as ''[[cathexis]]''. By 1917, in "[[Mourning and Melancholia]]", he suggested that certain depressions were caused by turning guilt-ridden anger on the self.<ref name="Freud 1917">Freud, Sigmund. 1955 [1917]. "[http://www.english.upenn.edu/~cavitch/pdf-library/Freud_MourningAndMelancholia.pdf Mourning and Melancholia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501002425/http://www.english.upenn.edu/~cavitch/pdf-library/Freud_MourningAndMelancholia.pdf |date=2015-05-01 }}." Pp. 243–58 in [[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|''Standard Edition'']] 17, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]]. – via [[University of Pennsylvania]].

Also available via [https://web.archive.org/web/20150501002425/http://www.english.upenn.edu/~cavitch/pdf-library/Freud_MourningAndMelancholia.pdf Internet Archive].</ref> In 1919, through "A Child is Being Beaten", he began to address the problems of [[self-destructive behavior]] and [[Sadomasochism|sexual masochism]].<ref>Freud, Sigmund. 1955 [1919]. "[https://icpla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Freud-S.-Child-is-Being-Beaten%E2%80%99-A-Contribution-to-the-Study-of-the-Origin-of-Sexual-Perversions.pdf A Child is Being Beaten] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806220225/https://icpla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Freud-S.-Child-is-Being-Beaten%E2%80%99-A-Contribution-to-the-Study-of-the-Origin-of-Sexual-Perversions.pdf |date=2020-08-06 }}." Pp. 175–204 in [[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|''Standard Edition'']] 17, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]]. – via The Institute of Contemporary Psychoanalysis.</ref> Based on his experience with depressed and self-destructive patients, and pondering the carnage of [[World War I]], Freud became dissatisfied with considering only oral and sexual motivations for behavior. By 1920, Freud addressed the power of identification (with the leader and with other members) in groups as a motivation for behavior in ''[[Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego]]''.<ref>Freud, Sigmund. 1922 [1920]. "Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego," translated by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. New York: [[Boni & Liveright]]. {{Hdl|2027/mdp.39015003802348}}.

— 1955 [1920]. "[http://freudians.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Freud_Group_Psychology.pdf Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108174249/http://freudians.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Freud_Group_Psychology.pdf |date=2021-01-08 }}." Pp. 65–144 in [[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|''Standard Edition'']] 18, translated by J. Strachey. London: [[Hogarth Press]].</ref><ref>"Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego" (review). ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' 3(2784):321. [[Nature Research|Nature Publishing Group]] 1923. {{doi|10.1038/111321d0}}. {{Bibcode|1923Natur.111T.321.}}.</ref> In that same year, Freud suggested his ''dual drive theory'' of sexuality and aggression in ''[[Beyond the Pleasure Principle]]'', to try to begin to explain human destructiveness. Also, it was the first appearance of his "structural theory" consisting of three new concepts [[Id, ego and super-ego|id, ego, and superego]].<ref>Freud, Sigmund. 1920. "[https://www.libraryofsocialscience.com/assets/pdf/freud_beyond_the_pleasure_principle.pdf Beyond the Pleasure Principle]," translated by C. J. M. Hubback. ''International Psycho-Analytic Library'' 4, edited by [[Ernest Jones|E. Jones]]. London: International Psycho-Analytic Press. – via Library of Social Science.

— 1955 [1920]. "[[Beyond the Pleasure Principle]]." In [[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|''Standard Edition'']] 18, translated by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]].</ref>

Three years later, in 1923, he summarised the ideas of id, ego, and superego in ''[[The Ego and the Id]]''.<ref name="Freud 1923">Freud, Sigmund. 1955 [1923]. "[[The Ego and the Id]]." In [[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|''Standard Edition'']] 19, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]].

Lay summaries via [https://www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.html Simply Psychology] and [https://daily.jstor.org/virtual-roundtable-on-the-ego-and-the-id/ JSTOR Daily Roundtable]. [https://www3.nd.edu/~dlapsle1/Lab/Articles%20&%20Chapters_files/Entry%20for%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Human%20Behavior%28finalized4%20Formatted%29.pdf Glossary] via University of Notre Dame.</ref> In the book, he revised the whole theory of mental functioning, now considering that repression was only one of many defense mechanisms, and that it occurred to reduce anxiety. Hence, Freud characterised repression as both a cause and a result of anxiety. In 1926, in "Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety", Freud characterised how intrapsychic conflict among drive and superego caused [[anxiety]], and how that anxiety could lead to an inhibition of mental functions, such as intellect and speech.<ref name="Freud 1926">Freud, Sigmund. 1955 [1926]. "Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety." In [[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|''Standard Edition'']] 20, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]]. {{doi|10.1080/21674086.1936.11925270}}. {{S2CID|142804158}}.</ref> In 1924, [[Otto Rank]] published ''[[The Trauma of Birth]]'', which analysed culture and philosophy in relation to separation anxiety which occurred before the development of an [[Oedipus complex|Oedipal complex]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Mustafa, A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RpWuBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT378|title=Organisational Behaviour|date=2013|publisher=Global Professional Publishing Limited|isbn=978-1-908287-36-6|via=Google Books}}</ref> Freud's theories, however, characterized no such phase. According to Freud, the Oedipus complex was at the centre of neurosis, and was the foundational source of all art, myth, religion, philosophy, therapy—indeed of all human culture and civilization. It was the first time that anyone in [[Inner circle (psychoanalysis)|Freud's inner circle]] had characterised something other than the Oedipus complex as contributing to intrapsychic development, a notion that was rejected by Freud and his followers at the time.

By 1936 the "Principle of Multiple Function" was clarified by [[Robert Waelder]].<ref>[[Robert Waelder|Waelder, Robert]]. 1936. "The Principles of Multiple Function: Observations on Over-Determination." ''[[The Psychoanalytic Quarterly]]'' 5:45–62. {{doi|10.1080/21674086.1936.11925272}}.</ref> He widened the formulation that psychological symptoms were caused by and relieved conflict simultaneously. Moreover, symptoms (such as [[phobia]]s and [[Compulsive behavior|compulsions]]) each represented elements of some drive wish (sexual and/or aggressive), superego, anxiety, reality, and defenses. Also in 1936, [[Anna Freud]], Sigmund's daughter, published her seminal book ''The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense'' outlining numerous ways the mind could shut upsetting things out of consciousness.<ref name="Freud 1937">[[Anna Freud|Freud, Anna]]. 1968 [1937]. ''The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence'' (revised ed.). London: [[Hogarth Press]].</ref>

===1940s–present===
[[File:Groupe de traduction OCF. F Altounian.tiff|thumb|Group of Psychoanalysts, [[André Bourguignon]], Pierre Cotet, François Robert, Alain Rauzy and Janine Altounian in [[France]]]] 
When [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]'s power grew, the Freud family and many of their colleagues fled to London. Within a year, Sigmund Freud died.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kuriloff, Emily A.|title=Contemporary Psychoanalysis and the Legacy of the Third Reich|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-1-136-93041-6|page=45}}</ref> In the United States, also following the death of Freud, a new group of psychoanalysts began to explore the function of the ego. Led by [[Heinz Hartmann]], the group built upon understandings of the ''synthetic'' function of the ego as a mediator in psychic functioning, distinguishing such from ''autonomous'' ego functions (e.g. memory and intellect). These "ego psychologists" of the 1950s paved the way to focus analytic work by attending to the defenses (mediated by the ego) before exploring the deeper roots of the unconscious conflicts.

In addition, there was growing interest in [[child psychoanalysis]]. Psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into childhood development,<ref group="lower-roman">cf. ''[[The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child]]'', academic journal</ref> and is still used to treat certain mental disturbances.<ref name="Wallerstein 2000">Wallerstein. 2000. ''Forty-Two Lives in Treatment: A Study of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy''.</ref> In the 1960s, Freud's early thoughts on the childhood development of [[female sexuality]] were challenged; this challenge led to the development of a variety of understandings of female sexual development,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Horney|first=Karen|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/780458101|title=Feminine psychology|date=1973|publisher=Norton|isbn=0-393-00686-7|oclc=780458101}}</ref> many of which modified the timing and normality of several of Freud's theories. Several researchers followed [[Karen Horney]]'s studies of societal pressures that influence the development of women.<ref>Blum, H. 1979. ''Masochism, the Ego Ideal and the Psychology of Women.'' JAPA.</ref>

In the first decade of the 21st century, there were approximately 35 training institutes for psychoanalysis in the United States accredited by the [[American Psychoanalytic Association]] (APsaA), which is a component organization of the [[International Psychoanalytical Association]] (IPA), and there are over 3000 graduated psychoanalysts practicing in the United States. The IPA accredits psychoanalytic training centers through such "component organisations" throughout the rest of the world, including countries such as Serbia, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland,<ref>{{citation |url = http://www.ipa.org.uk/en/Societies/Europe/ComponentSocieties.aspx |title = IPA Component Organisations in Europe |access-date = 2012-11-20 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151023113323/http://www.ipa.org.uk/en/Societies/Europe/ComponentSocieties.aspx |archive-date = 2015-10-23 |url-status = dead }}</ref> and many others, as well as about six institutes directly in the United States.

===Psychoanalysis as a movement===
Freud founded the ''Psychological Wednesday Society'' in 1902, which [[Edward Shorter (historian)|Edward Shorter]] argues was the beginning of psychoanalysis as a movement. This society became the [[Vienna Psychoanalytic Society]] in 1908 in the same year as the first international congress of psychoanalysis held in Salzburg, Austria.<ref name="Shorter 2005" />{{Rp|page=110}} [[Alfred Adler]] was one of the most active members in this society in its early years.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ellenberger|first=Henri F.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/68543|title=The discovery of the unconscious: the history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry|date=1970|isbn=0-465-01672-3|location=New York|oclc=68543 |publisher=Basic Books}}</ref>{{Rp|page=584}}

The second congress of psychoanalysis took place in Nuremberg, Germany in 1910.<ref name="Shorter 2005" />{{Rp|page=110}} At this congress, [[Sándor Ferenczi|Ferenczi]] called for the creation of an International Psychoanalytic Association with [[Carl Jung|Jung]] as president for life.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eisold|first=Kenneth|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/994873775|title=The Organizational Life of Psychoanalysis: Conflicts, Dilemmas, and the Future of the Profession|date=2017|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-39006-2|oclc=994873775}}</ref>{{Rp|page=15}} A third congress was held in Weimar in 1911.<ref name="Shorter 2005">{{Cite book|last=Shorter|first=Edward|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/65200006|title=A historical dictionary of psychiatry|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803923-5|location=New York|oclc=65200006}}</ref>{{Rp|page=110}} The London Psychoanalytical Society was founded in 1913 by [[Ernest Jones]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Robinson|first=Ken|title=A Brief History of the British Psychoanalytic Society|url=http://psychoanalysis.org.uk/sites/default/files/documents/pages/history_of_the_bps_by_ken_robinson_0.pdf|publisher=British Psychoanalytical Society}}</ref>

===Developments of alternative forms of psychotherapy===
====Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)====
In the 1950s, psychoanalysis was the main modality of [[psychotherapy]]. Behavioural models of psychotherapy started to assume a more central role in psychotherapy in the 1960s.<ref group="lower-roman">"By the 1960s it would assume a more central place in the psychotherapy arena"</ref><ref name="NorcrossVandenBos2011">{{cite book|author1=John C. Norcross|author2=Gary R. VandenBos|author3=Donald K. Freedheim|title=History of Psychotherapy: Continuity and Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xBkbQwAACAAJ|year=2011|publisher=American Psychological Association|isbn=978-1-4338-0762-6}}</ref> [[Aaron T. Beck]], a psychiatrist trained in a psychoanalytic tradition, set out to test the psychoanalytic models of depression empirically and found that conscious ruminations of loss and personal failing were correlated with depression. He suggested that distorted and biased beliefs were a causal factor of depression, publishing an influential paper in 1967 after a decade of research using the construct of [[Schema (psychology)|schemas]] to explain the depression.<ref name="NorcrossVandenBos2011" />{{Rp|221}} Beck developed this empirically supported hypothesis for the cause of depression into a talking therapy called [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) in the early 1970s.

====Attachment theory====
{{See also|Attachment theory#Psychoanalysis}}
[[Attachment theory]] was developed theoretically by [[John Bowlby]] and formalized empirically by [[Mary Ainsworth]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bretherton|first=Inge|date=1992|title=The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759|journal=Developmental Psychology|language=en|volume=28|issue=5|pages=759–775|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759|issn=0012-1649|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Bowlby was trained psychoanalytically but was concerned about some properties of psychoanalysis;<ref name="Goldberg 1995">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32856560|title=Attachment theory : social, developmental, and clinical perspectives|date=1995|publisher=Analytic Press|editor-first1=Susan|editor-last1=Goldberg|editor-first2=Roy|editor-last2=Muir|editor-first3=John|editor-last3=Kerr|isbn=0-88163-184-1|location=Hillsdale, NJ|oclc=32856560}}</ref>{{Rp|23}} he was troubled by the dogmatism of psychoanalysis at the time, its arcane terminology, the lack of attention to environment in child behaviour, and the concepts derived from talking therapy to child behaviour.<ref name="Goldberg 1995" />{{Rp|23}} In response, he developed an alternative conceptualization of child behaviour based on principles on [[ethology]].<ref name="Goldberg 1995" />{{Rp|24}} Bowlby's theory of attachment rejects Freud's model of [[psychosexual development]] based on the Oedipal model.<ref name="Goldberg 1995" />{{Rp|25}} For his work, Bowlby was shunned from psychoanalytical circles who did not accept his theories. Nonetheless, his conceptualization was adopted widely by mother-infant research in the 1970s.<ref name="Goldberg 1995" />{{Rp|26}}