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Pygmy marmoset
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=== Social systems === Infant pygmy marmosets, along with their parents, twins, and other siblings, form co-operative care groups. [[Babbling]], or vocalizing, by the infant marmoset is a key part of its relationships with its family members and is a major part of its development. As the infant develops, the babbling gradually changes to resemble and eventually become adult vocalization. Many similarities are seen between the development of vocalization in infant pygmy marmosets and speech in infant humans. Vocalizing gives the infant advantages, such as increased care, and allows the entire family to coordinate their activities without seeing each other.<ref name="ElowsonSnowdonLazaro-Perea1998">{{Cite journal | last1 = Elowson | first1 = A. M.| last2 = Snowdon | first2 = C. T. | last3 = Lazaro-Perea | first3 = C. | doi = 10.1016/S1364-6613(97)01115-7 | title = 'Babbling' and social context in infant monkeys: Parallels to human infants | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 31β37 | year = 1998 | pmid = 21244960| s2cid = 20241230}}</ref> [[File:Pigmejka 1.jpg|thumb|left|Pygmy marmosets live in groups of two to nine individuals.]] Siblings also participate in infant care. Infant marmosets require the most attention, so having more family members participating in the care decreases the cost for any individual and also teaches parenting skills to the [[juvenile (organism)|juvenile]] marmosets. Members of the group, usually female, may even put off their own reproduction through a temporary cessation of ovulation to care for the offspring of others in the group. The ideal number of caregivers for an infant marmoset has been shown to be around five individuals. Caregivers are responsible for finding food for the infants and helping the father watch for [[Predation|predators]].<ref name="SnowdonZiegler2007">{{Cite journal | last1 = Snowdon | first1 = C. T. | last2 = Ziegler | first2 = T. E. | title = Growing up cooperatively: Family processes and infant care in marmosets and tamarins | journal = The Journal of Developmental Processes | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 40β66 | year = 2007 | url = http://www.psych.utah.edu/people/people/fogel/jdp/journals/2/journal02-02.pdf | access-date = 2012-11-22}}</ref> Pygmy marmosets are not seasonal breeders and usually give birth to twins once or twice a year.<ref name="Goldizen1988">{{Cite journal | last1 = Goldizen | first1 = A. W. | title = Tamarin and marmoset mating systems: Unusual flexibility | doi = 10.1016/0169-5347(88)90045-6 | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 36β56 | year = 1988 | pmid = 21227069| hdl = 2027.42/27403 | url = https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/27403/1/0000436.pdf | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Single births, however, occur in 16% and triplet births occur in 8% of pregnancies.<ref name="ZieglerSnowdonBridson1990"/> The pygmy marmoset is usually [[Monogamy in animals|monogamous]], though some variation happens within the species in terms of breeding systems. [[Polyandry in animals|Polyandry]] also occurs, as male marmosets are responsible for carrying the infants on their backs. Having a second male to carry the offspring can be beneficial, as marmoset litters are often twins and this decreases the physiological cost to any particular male. The daily range of pygmy marmosets, however, is relatively small, which decreases the rate of polyandry.<ref name="DaviesKrebsWest2012">{{Cite book | last1 = Davies | first1 = N. B. | last2 = Krebs | first2 = J. R. | last3 = West | first3 = S. A. | title = An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DC1sNPm219sC | chapter = Mating systems | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DC1sNPm219sC&pg=PA254 | access-date = 2012-12-01 | year = 2012 | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | isbn = 978-1-4443-9845-8 | page = 258}}</ref> Male and female pygmy marmosets show differences in foraging and feeding behavior, although male and female dominance and aggressive behavior vary within the species. Males have less time to search out food sources and forage due to the constraints of their infant-caring responsibilities and predator vigilance. Without an infant to carry, female pygmy marmosets have greater freedom to forage, giving them an apparent feeding priority, which may serve to compensate mothers for the energetic costs of carrying and lactating for two offspring at a time. Since breeding priority is also given to females without offspring, the argument is weakened. Instead, female feeding priority may have evolved through [[sexual selection]]. Females may choose mates that invest more time in infant care and predator vigilance. Such males have less time to look for food, allowing the female feeding priority.<ref name="Bicca-Marques2003">{{Cite book | last = Bicca-Marques | first = J. C. | chapter = Sexual selection and the evolution of foraging behavior in male and female tamarins and marmosets | title = Sexual Selection and Reproductive Competition in Primates: New Perspectives and Directions | editor-last = Jones | editor-first = C. | chapter-url = http://primates-amp.org.mx/images/stories/biblioteca/Sexual_selection_chapter.pdf | location = Norman, OK | publisher = American Society of Primatologists | year = 2003 | pages = 455β475}}</ref>
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