Editing Radiation hardening (section)

===Resultant effects===
The "end-user" effects can be characterized in several groups:

<!--Ionization effectsNeutron effectsIonization effects-->
A neutron interacting with a semiconductor lattice will displace the atoms in the lattice. This leads to an increase in the count of recombination centers and [[deep-level defect]]s, reducing the lifetime of minority carriers, thus affecting [[bipolar junction transistor|bipolar devices]] more than [[CMOS]] ones. Bipolar devices on [[silicon]] tend to show changes in electrical parameters at levels of 10<sup>10</sup> to 10<sup>11</sup> neutrons/cm<sup>2</sup>, while CMOS devices aren't affected until 10<sup>15</sup> neutrons/cm<sup>2</sup>. The sensitivity of devices may increase together with increasing level of integration and decreasing size of individual structures. There is also a risk of induced radioactivity caused by [[neutron activation]], which is a major source of noise in [[high-energy astronomy|high energy astrophysics]] instruments. Induced radiation, together with residual radiation from impurities in component materials, can cause all sorts of single-event problems during the device's lifetime. [[gallium arsenide|GaAs]] [[light-emitting diode|LEDs]], common in [[optocoupler]]s, are very sensitive to neutrons. The lattice damage influences the frequency of [[crystal oscillator]]s. Kinetic energy effects (namely lattice displacement) of charged particles belong here too.

====Total ionizing dose effects====
Total ionizing dose effects represent the cumulative damage of the semiconductor lattice (''lattice displacement'' damage) caused by exposure to ionizing radiation over time. It is measured in [[rad (unit)|rads]] and causes slow gradual degradation of the device's performance. A total dose greater than 5000 rads delivered to silicon-based devices in a timespan on the order of seconds to minutes will cause long-term degradation. In CMOS devices, the radiation creates [[electron–hole pair]]s in the gate insulation layers,<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Khoshnoud
| first1 = A.
| last2 = Yavandhassani
| first2 = J.
| title = Modeling of total ionizing dose (TID) effects on the nonuniform distribution of Si/SiO<sub>2</sub> interface trap energy states in MOS devices
| journal = Scientific Reports
| volume = 15
| pages = 17082
| year = 2025
| doi = 10.1038/s41598-025-01325-3
| url = https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-01325-3
}}</ref> which cause photocurrents during their recombination, and the holes trapped in the lattice defects in the insulator create a persistent gate [[biasing]] and influence the transistors' [[threshold voltage]], making the N-type MOSFET transistors easier and the P-type ones more difficult to switch on. The accumulated charge can be high enough to keep the transistors permanently open (or closed), leading to device failure. Some self-healing takes place over time, but this effect is not too significant. This effect is the same as [[hot carrier degradation]] in high-integration high-speed electronics. Crystal oscillators are somewhat sensitive to radiation doses, which alter their frequency. The sensitivity can be greatly reduced by using [[swept quartz]]. Natural [[quartz]] crystals are especially sensitive. Radiation performance curves for TID testing may be generated for all resultant effects testing procedures. These curves show performance trends throughout the TID test process and are included in the radiation test report.

====Transient dose effects====
Transient dose effects result from a brief high-intensity pulse of radiation, typically occurring during a nuclear explosion. The high radiation flux creates photocurrents in the entire body of the semiconductor, causing transistors to randomly open, changing logical states of [[Flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flops]] and [[Memory cell (computers)|memory cells]]. Permanent damage may occur if the duration of the pulse is too long, or if the pulse causes junction damage or a latchup. Latchups are commonly caused by the X-rays and gamma radiation flash of a nuclear explosion. Crystal oscillators may stop oscillating for the duration of the flash due to prompt [[photoconductivity]] induced in quartz.

====Systems-generated EMP effects====
SGEMP effects are caused by the radiation flash traveling through the equipment and causing local [[ionization]] and [[electric current]]s in the material of the chips, [[circuit board]]s, [[electrical cable]]s and cases.