Editing Radioactive decay (section)

==Types==
{{More citations needed|section|date=May 2023}}
Radioactive decay results in a reduction of summed rest [[mass]], once the released energy (the ''disintegration energy'') has escaped in some way. Although [[decay energy]] is sometimes defined as associated with the difference between the mass of the parent nuclide products and the mass of the decay products, this is true only of rest mass measurements, where some energy has been removed from the product system. This is true because the decay energy must always carry mass with it, wherever it appears (see [[mass in special relativity]]) according to the formula [[E=mc2|''E''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''mc''<sup>2</sup>]]. The decay energy is initially released as the energy of emitted photons plus the kinetic energy of massive emitted particles (that is, particles that have rest mass). If these particles come to [[thermal equilibrium]] with their surroundings and photons are absorbed, then the decay energy is transformed to thermal energy, which retains its mass.

Decay energy, therefore, remains associated with a certain measure of the mass of the decay system, called [[invariant mass]], which does not change during the decay, even though the energy of decay is distributed among decay particles. The energy of photons, the kinetic energy of emitted particles, and, later, the thermal energy of the surrounding matter, all contribute to the [[invariant mass]] of the system. Thus, while the sum of the rest masses of the particles is not conserved in radioactive decay, the ''system'' mass and system invariant mass (and also the system total energy) is conserved throughout any decay process. This is a restatement of the equivalent laws of [[conservation of energy]] and [[conservation of mass]].

=== Alpha, beta and gamma decay ===
{{Main|Alpha decay|Beta decay|Gamma decay}}
[[File:Alfa beta gamma radiation.svg|upright=0.8|thumb|[[Alpha particle]]s may be completely stopped by a sheet of paper, [[beta particle]]s by aluminium shielding. [[Gamma ray]]s can only be reduced by much more substantial mass, such as a very thick layer of [[lead]].]]Early researchers found that an [[Electric field|electric]] or [[magnetic field]] could split radioactive emissions into three types of beams. The rays were given the names [[Alpha particle|alpha]], [[Beta particle|beta]], and gamma, in increasing order of their ability to penetrate matter. Alpha decay is observed only in heavier elements of atomic number 52 ([[tellurium]]) and greater, with the exception of [[beryllium-8]] (which decays to two alpha particles). The other two types of decay are observed in all the elements. Lead, [[atomic number]] 82, is the heaviest element to have any isotopes stable (to the limit of measurement) to radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is seen in all isotopes of all elements of atomic number 83 ([[bismuth]]) or greater. [[Bismuth-209]], however, is only very slightly radioactive, with a half-life greater than the age of the universe; radioisotopes with extremely long half-lives are considered effectively stable for practical purposes.
[[File:Radioactive decay modes.svg|upright=0.9|thumb|Transition diagram for decay modes of a radionuclide, with neutron number ''N'' and [[atomic number]] ''Z'' (shown are [[Alpha particle|α]], [[electron|β<sup>±</sup>]], [[proton|p<sup>+</sup>]], and [[neutron|n<sup>0</sup>]] emissions, EC denotes [[electron capture]]).]]In analyzing the nature of the decay products, it was obvious from the direction of the [[electromagnetic force]]s applied to the radiations by external magnetic and electric fields that alpha particles carried a positive charge, beta particles carried a negative charge, and gamma rays were neutral. From the magnitude of deflection, it was clear that [[alpha particles]] were much more massive than [[beta particles]]. Passing alpha particles through a very thin glass window and trapping them in a [[neon lamp|discharge tube]] allowed researchers to study the [[emission spectrum]] of the captured particles, and ultimately proved that alpha particles are [[helium]] nuclei. Other experiments showed beta radiation, resulting from decay and [[cathode ray]]s, were high-speed [[electrons]]. Likewise, gamma radiation and X-rays were found to be high-energy [[electromagnetic radiation]].

The relationship between the types of decays also began to be examined: For example, gamma decay was almost always found to be associated with other types of decay, and occurred at about the same time, or afterwards. Gamma decay as a separate phenomenon, with its own half-life (now termed [[isomeric transition]]), was found in natural radioactivity to be a result of the gamma decay of excited metastable [[nuclear isomer]]s, which were in turn created from other types of decay. Although alpha, beta, and gamma radiations were most commonly found, other types of emission were eventually discovered. Shortly after the discovery of the [[positron]] in cosmic ray products, it was realized that the same process that operates in classical beta decay can also produce positrons ([[positron emission]]), along with [[neutrino]]s (classical beta decay produces antineutrinos).

=== Electron capture ===
{{Main|Electron capture}}
In electron capture, some proton-rich nuclides were found to capture their own atomic electrons instead of emitting positrons, and subsequently, these nuclides emit only a neutrino and a gamma ray from the excited nucleus (and often also [[Auger electron]]s and [[characteristic X-ray]]s, as a result of the re-ordering of electrons to fill the place of the missing captured electron). These types of decay involve the nuclear capture of electrons or emission of electrons or positrons, and thus acts to move a nucleus toward the ratio of neutrons to protons that has the least energy for a given total number of [[nucleon]]s. This consequently produces a more stable (lower energy) nucleus.

A hypothetical process of positron capture, analogous to electron capture, is theoretically possible in antimatter atoms, but has not been observed, as complex antimatter atoms beyond [[antihelium]] are not experimentally available.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Radioactive Decay |url=http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch23/modes.php#fission |access-date=2022-05-05 |website=chemed.chem.purdue.edu}}</ref> Such a decay would require antimatter atoms at least as complex as [[beryllium-7]], which is the lightest known isotope of normal matter to undergo decay by electron capture.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CH103 – Chapter 3: Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry – Chemistry |url=https://wou.edu/chemistry/courses/online-chemistry-textbooks/ch103-allied-health-chemistry/ch103-chapter-3-radioactivity/ |access-date=2022-07-05 |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Nucleon emission ===
{{Main|Neutron emission|Cluster emission|Nuclear fission}}
Shortly after the discovery of the neutron in 1932, [[Enrico Fermi]] realized that certain rare beta-decay reactions immediately yield neutrons as an additional decay particle, so called beta-delayed [[neutron emission]]. Neutron emission usually happens from nuclei that are in an excited state, such as the excited <sup>17</sup>O* produced from the beta decay of <sup>17</sup>N. The neutron emission process itself is controlled by the [[nuclear force]] and therefore is extremely fast, sometimes referred to as "nearly instantaneous". Isolated [[proton emission]] was eventually observed in some elements. It was also found that some heavy elements may undergo [[spontaneous fission]] into products that vary in composition. In a phenomenon called [[cluster decay]], specific combinations of neutrons and protons other than alpha particles (helium nuclei) were found to be spontaneously emitted from atoms.

=== More exotic types of decay ===
Other types of radioactive decay were found to emit previously seen particles but via different mechanisms. An example is [[internal conversion]], which results in an initial electron emission, and then often further [[characteristic X-ray]]s and [[Auger electron]]s emissions, although the internal conversion process involves neither beta nor gamma decay. A neutrino is not emitted, and none of the electron(s) and photon(s) emitted originate in the nucleus, even though the energy to emit all of them does originate there. Internal conversion decay, like [[isomeric transition]] gamma decay and neutron emission, involves the release of energy by an excited nuclide, without the transmutation of one element into another.

Rare events that involve a combination of two beta-decay-type events happening simultaneously are known (see below). Any decay process that does not violate the conservation of energy or momentum laws (and perhaps other particle conservation laws) is permitted to happen, although not all have been detected. An interesting example discussed in a final section, is [[Beta decay#Bound-state β− decay|bound state beta decay]] of [[rhenium-187]]. In this process, the beta electron-decay of the parent nuclide is not accompanied by beta electron emission, because the beta particle has been captured into the K-shell of the emitting atom. An antineutrino is emitted, as in all negative beta decays.

If energy circumstances are favorable, a given radionuclide may undergo many competing types of decay, with some atoms decaying by one route, and others decaying by another. An example is [[copper-64]], which has 29 protons, and 35 neutrons, which decays with a half-life of {{val|12.7004|(13)}} hours.<ref name=NUBASE2020 /> This isotope has one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron, so either the proton or the neutron can decay to the other particle, which has opposite [[isospin]]. This particular nuclide (though not all nuclides in this situation) is more likely to decay through [[beta plus decay]] ({{val|61.52|(26)}}%<ref name=NUBASE2020/>) than through [[electron capture]] ({{val|38.48|(26)}}%<ref name=NUBASE2020/>). The excited energy states resulting from these decays which fail to end in a ground energy state, also produce later internal conversion and [[gamma decay]] in almost 0.5% of the time.

===List of decay modes {{anchor|1=Modes}}<!-- 2022-03-03 -->===
{{anchor|Decay modes in table form|Decay modes}}
{| class="wikitable collapsible uncollapsed sortable" style="font-size: 95%;"
|+Decay modes in NUBASE2020<ref name=NUBASE2020>{{NUBASE2020}}</ref>
|- style="background:#eee0e0; white-space:nowrap;"
! Mode
! Name
! style="max-width:30%;" | Action
! Nucleus changes<!-- A, Z daughter nucleus effect -->
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| [[Alpha decay|alpha emission]]
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| [[proton emission]]
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| [[Proton emission|2-proton emission]]
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| [[neutron emission]]
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| [[Neutron emission|2-neutron emission]]
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| [[electron capture]]
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| [[positron emission]]
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| [[positron emission]]
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| [[Beta decay|β<sup>−</sup> decay]]
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| [[Double beta decay|double β<sup>−</sup> decay]]
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| [[Double beta decay|double β<sup>+</sup> decay]]
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| [[Delayed neutron|β<sup>−</sup>-delayed neutron emission]]
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| β<sup>−</sup>-delayed 2-neutron emission
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| β<sup>−</sup>-delayed 3-neutron emission
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| β<sup>+</sup>-delayed proton emission
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| β<sup>+</sup>-delayed 2-proton emission
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| β<sup>+</sup>-delayed 3-proton emission
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| β<sup>−</sup>-delayed alpha emission
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| β<sup>+</sup>-delayed alpha emission
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| β<sup>−</sup>-delayed deuteron emission
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| β<sup>−</sup>-delayed triton emission
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| [[cluster decay]]
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| [[Nuclear isomer#Decay processes|internal (isomeric) transition]]
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| [[spontaneous fission]]
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| β<sup>+</sup>-delayed fission
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| β<sup>−</sup>-delayed fission
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=== Decay chains and multiple modes ===
{{See also|Valley of stability}}
[[File:Decay_Chain(4n+1,_Neptunium_Series).svg|right|thumb|600x600px|The decay chain of [[neptunium]]-237]]
The daughter nuclide of a decay event may also be unstable (radioactive). In this case, it too will decay, producing radiation. The resulting second daughter nuclide may also be radioactive. This can lead to a sequence of several decay events called a ''[[decay chain]]'' (see this article for specific details of important natural decay chains). Eventually, a stable nuclide is produced. Any decay daughters that are the result of an alpha decay will also result in helium atoms being created.

Some radionuclides may have several different paths of decay. For example, {{val|35.94|(6)}}%<ref name="NUBASE2020" /> of [[bismuth-212]] decays, through alpha-emission, to [[thallium-208]] while {{val|64.06|(6)}}%<ref name="NUBASE2020" /> of [[bismuth-212]] decays, through beta-emission, to [[polonium-212]]. Both [[thallium-208]] and [[polonium-212]] are radioactive daughter products of bismuth-212, and both decay directly to stable [[lead-208]].