Editing Seizure (section)

==Causes==
{{Main|Causes of seizures}}Seizures can occur for many reasons and are broadly classified based on whether they are provoked (acute symptomatic) or unprovoked. Identifying the underlying cause is critical for guiding treatment and assessing the risk of recurrence.<ref name="Berkowitz2022" />

=== Provoked seizures ===
Provoked seizures, also known as acute symptomatic seizures, occur in direct response to an identifiable, transient cause affecting brain function. Common causes include:

* Metabolic disturbances: such as [[hypoglycemia]] (low blood sugar), [[hyponatremia]] (low sodium), or [[uremia]].<ref name="Abou-Khalil2022">{{Cite book |last1=Abou-Khalil |first1=Bassel W. |title=Bradley and Daroff's Neurology in Clinical Practice |last2=Gallagher |first2=Martin J. |last3=Macdonald |first3=Robert L. |publisher=Elsevier |year=2022 |isbn=978-0323642613 |edition=8th |pages=1614–1663 |chapter=Epilepsies |chapter-url=https://www.clinicalkey.com/#!/content/book/3-s2.0-B9780323642613001005}}</ref><ref name="Nardone2016"/>
* Central nervous system infections: including [[meningitis]], [[encephalitis]], or [[neurocysticercosis]].<ref name="Berkowitz2022" />
* Acute brain injuries: such as [[stroke]], [[traumatic brain injury]], or [[hemorrhage]].<ref name="Berkowitz2022" />
* Substance-related factors: including [[alcohol withdrawal]], [[Substance intoxication|drug intoxication]], or medication withdrawal.<ref name="Chen2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Hsien-Yi |last2=Albertson |first2=Timothy E. |last3=Olson |first3=Kent R. |year=2015 |title=Treatment of drug-induced seizures |journal=British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology |language=en |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=412–419 |doi=10.1111/bcp.12720 |issn=0306-5251 |pmc=4767205 |pmid=26174744}}</ref>
* Fever: particularly in children, leading to [[febrile seizure]]s.<ref name="Berkowitz2022" /><ref name="Xixis2024">{{Citation |last1=Xixis |first1=Kathryn L. |title=Febrile Seizure |date=2024 |work=StatPearls |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448123/ |access-date=2024-11-01 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=28846243 |last2=Samanta |first2=Debopam |last3=Smith |first3=Travis |last4=Keenaghan |first4=Michael}}</ref><ref name="Graves2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Graves RC, Oehler K, Tingle LE |date=January 2012 |title=Febrile seizures: risks, evaluation, and prognosis |journal=American Family Physician |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=149–153 |pmid=22335215}}</ref>

=== Unprovoked seizures ===
Unprovoked seizures occur without an immediate precipitating event. These include spontaneous seizures and [[reflex seizure]]s, which are consistently triggered by specific stimuli (e.g., flashing lights) but arise due to an enduring predisposition, not a transient cause.<ref name="Berg2010" />

They typically reflect an underlying neurological predisposition and are associated with a higher risk of recurrence,<ref name="Berkowitz2022" /> meeting the diagnostic criteria for [[epilepsy]] when there are either two or more unprovoked (or reflex) seizures occurring more than 24 hours apart, or one unprovoked (or reflex) seizure with a recurrence risk of at least 60% over the next 10 years based on clinical and diagnostic findings.

Causes and contexts for unprovoked seizures include:

* Structural brain abnormalities: such as [[brain tumor]]s, malformations of cortical development, and chronic lesions from prior brain trauma.<ref name="Chen2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Jiayu |last2=Ye |first2=Haijiao |last3=Zhang |first3=Jie |last4=Li |first4=Aihong |last5=Ni |first5=Yaohui |title=Pathogenesis of seizures and epilepsy after stroke |journal=Acta Epileptologica |publication-date=2022 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=2 |doi=10.1186/s42494-021-00068-8 |issn=2524-4434 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* Genetic epilepsies: mutations affecting neuronal excitability or network function. Examples include [[Dravet syndrome]], [[Lennox–Gastaut syndrome]], and [[juvenile myoclonic epilepsy]].<ref name="Berkowitz2022" />
* Infectious etiologies: sequelae of central nervous system infections, such as [[neurocysticercosis]] or [[viral encephalitis]].<ref name="Vezzani2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Vezzani |first1=Annamaria |last2=Fujinami |first2=Robert S. |last3=White |first3=H. Steve |last4=Preux |first4=Pierre-Marie |last5=Blümcke |first5=Ingmar |last6=Sander |first6=Josemir W. |last7=Löscher |first7=Wolfgang |year=2015 |title=Infections, inflammation and epilepsy |journal=Acta Neuropathologica |language=en |volume=131 |issue=2 |pages=211–234 |doi=10.1007/s00401-015-1481-5 |issn=0001-6322 |pmc=4867498 |pmid=26423537}}</ref>
* Metabolic disorders: inborn errors of metabolism or [[mitochondrial diseases]] affecting neuronal function.
* Immune-mediated epilepsies: such as [[autoimmune encephalitis]].
* Unknown etiologies: in some cases, no clear cause is found despite thorough investigation (termed idiopathic seizures).