Editing Shift work (section)

== Prevention ==

=== Management practices ===
[[File:Change of work shift at Ford Motor Company.jpg|thumb|4 o'clock shift at the Ford Motor Company assembly plant in Detroit, Michigan, 1910s]]

The practices and policies put in place by managers of round-the-clock or 24/7 operations can significantly influence shift worker alertness (and hence safety) and performance.<ref name = fundamentals>{{ cite web | last1 = Miller | first1 = JC | title = Fundamentals of Shiftwork Scheduling, 3rd Edition: Fixing Stupid | publisher = Smashwords | year = 2013 | url = https://www.smashwords.com/books/view/352352 }}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=December 2023}}

[[Air traffic controller]]s typically work an 8-hour day, 5 days per week. Research has shown that when controllers remain "in position" for more than two hours, even at low traffic levels, performance can deteriorate rapidly, so they are typically placed "in position" for 30-minute intervals (with 30 minutes between intervals).

These practices and policies can include selecting an appropriate shift schedule or [[schedule (workplace)|rota]] and using an [[employee scheduling software]] to maintain it, setting the length of shifts, managing overtime, increasing lighting levels, providing shift worker lifestyle training, retirement compensation based on salary in the last few years of employment (which can encourage excessive overtime among older workers who may be less able to obtain adequate sleep), or screening and hiring of new shift workers that assesses adaptability to a shift work schedule.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blog.intrigma.com/five-foundations-for-a-fair-physician-schedule|title=Five Foundations For A Fair Physician Schedule|publisher=Intrigma Inc.|access-date=2016-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812123242/http://blog.intrigma.com/five-foundations-for-a-fair-physician-schedule|archive-date=2016-08-12|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mandating a minimum of 10 hours between shifts is an effective strategy to encourage adequate sleep for workers. Allowing frequent breaks and scheduling 8- or 10-hour shifts instead of 12-hour shifts can also minimize fatigue and help to mitigate the negative health effects of shift work.<ref name=":3" />

[[File:GROUP OF MINERS WAITING TO GO TO WORK ON THE 4 P.M. TO MIDNIGHT SHIFT AT THE VIRGINIA-POCAHONTAS COAL COMPANY MINE ^4... - NARA - 556348.jpg|thumb|Miners waiting to go to work on the 4 P.M. to midnight shift at the Virginia-Pocahontas Coal Co., 1974]]
Multiple factors need to be considered when developing optimal shift work schedules, including shift timing, length, frequency and length of breaks during shifts, shift succession, worker commute time, as well as the mental and physical stress of the job.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Knauth|first1=Peter|last2=Hornberger|first2=Sonia|date=2003-03-01|title=Preventive and compensatory measures for shift workers|journal=Occupational Medicine|language=en|volume=53|issue=2|pages=109–116|doi=10.1093/occmed/kqg049|pmid=12637595|issn=0962-7480|doi-access=free}}</ref> Even though studies support 12-hour shifts are associated with increased occupational injuries and accident (higher rates with subsequent, successive shifts),<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Folkard|first1=Simon|last2=Lombardi|first2=David A.|date=2006-11-01|title=Modeling the impact of the components of long work hours on injuries and "accidents"|journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine|language=en|volume=49|issue=11|pages=953–963|doi=10.1002/ajim.20307|pmid=16570251|s2cid=10927108 |issn=1097-0274}}</ref> a synthesis of evidence cites the importance of all factors when considering the safety of a shift.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working time, health and safety : a research synthesis paper|last=Philip.|first=Tucker|date=2012|publisher=ILO|others=Folkard, Simon., International Labour Office.|isbn=9789221260615|location=Geneva|oclc=795699411}}</ref>

Shift work was once characteristic primarily of the [[manufacturing industry]], where it has a clear effect of increasing the use that can be made of capital equipment and allows for up to three times the production compared to just a day shift. It contrasts with the use of [[overtime]] to increase production at the margin. Both approaches incur higher wage costs. Although 2nd-shift worker efficiency levels are typically 3–5% below 1st shift, and 3rd shift 4–6% below 2nd shift, the productivity level, i.e. cost per employee, is often 25% to 40% lower on 2nd and 3rd shifts due to fixed costs which are "paid" by the first shift.<ref>Alan Blinder and William Baumol 1993, Economics: Principles and Policy, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, San Diego, p.&nbsp;687.</ref>

=== Shift system ===
The 42-hour work-week allows for the most even distribution of work time. A 3:1 ratio of work days to days off is most effective for eight-hour shifts, and a 2:2 ratio of work days to days off is most effective for twelve-hour shifts.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Knauth | first1 = P | last2 = Rohmert | first2 = W | last3 = Rutenfranz | first3 = J | title = Systematic selection of shift plans for continuous production with the aid of work-physiological criteria | journal = Applied Ergonomics | date=March 1979 | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–15 | doi=10.1016/0003-6870(79)90003-6| pmid = 15676345 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rutenfranz | first1 = J | last2 = Knauth | first2 = P | last3 = Colquhoun | first3 = W | title = Hours of work and shiftwork | journal = Ergonomics | date=May 1976 | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 331–340 | doi=10.1080/00140137608931549| pmid = 976239 }}</ref> Eight-hour shifts and twelve-hour shifts are common in manufacturing and health care. Twelve-hour shifts are also used with a very slow rotation in the [[petroleum industry]]. Twenty-four-hour shifts are common in health care and emergency services.<ref name=":2" />

=== Shift schedule and shift plan ===
{{main|Shift plan}}

The shift plan or rota is the central component of a [[schedule (workplace)|shift schedule]].{{cn|date=December 2023}} The schedule includes considerations of shift overlap, shift change times and alignment with the clock, vacation, training, shift differentials, holidays, etc., whereas the shift plan determines the sequence of work and free days within a shift system.

Rotation of shifts can be fast, in which a worker changes shifts more than once a week, or slow, in which a worker changes shifts less than once a week. Rotation can also be forward, when a subsequent shift starts later, or backward, when a subsequent shift starts earlier.<ref name=":2" />  Evidence supports forward rotating shifts are more adaptable for shift workers' circadian physiology.<ref name=":5" />

One main concern of shift workers is knowing their schedule more than two weeks at a time. Shift work is stressful. When on a rotating or ever changing shift, workers have to worry about daycare, personal appointments, and running their households. Many already work more than an eight-hour shift.  Some evidence suggests giving employees schedules more than a month in advance would give proper notice and allow planning, their stress level would be reduced.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mitrefinch.com/blog/rotating-shift-schedules/|title=Keeping it Balanced: The Art of Scheduling Rotating Shifts|last=pierce|date=2016-08-29|website=Mitrefinch|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-03|archive-date=2019-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043514/https://mitrefinch.com/blog/rotating-shift-schedules/|url-status=dead}}</ref>