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===Medieval and early modern=== ====Christian and classical heraldric usage==== {{further information|Crescent (heraldry)|Star (heraldry)|Sun (heraldry)}} The [[crescent (heraldry)|crescent]] on its own is used in western heraldry from at least the 13th century, while the star and crescent (or "Sun and Moon") emblem is in use in medieval seals at least from the late 12th century. The crescent in pellet symbol is used in [[Crusader coins]] of the 12th century, in some cases duplicated in the four corners of a cross, as a variant of the cross-and-crosslets ("[[Jerusalem cross]]").<ref>In the 12th century found on pennies of [[William the Lion]] (r. 1174–1195). William Till, ''An Essay on the Roman Denarius and English Silver Penny'' (1838), [https://archive.org/details/anessayonromand00tillgoog/page/n88 p. 73]. E.g. "Rev: short cross with crescent and pellets in angles and +RAVLD[ ] legend for the moneyer Raul Derling at Berwick or Roxburgh mint" ([http://www.timelineauctions.com/lot/scotland-william-the-lion-raul-derling-crescent-and-pellets-penny/17359/ timelineauctions.com]). Seaby SE5025 "Rev. [+RAV]L ON ROC, short cross with crescents & pellets in quarters" ([http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/SE/SE5025.html wildwinds.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116111651/http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/SE/SE5025.html |date=16 November 2019 }}).</ref> Many Crusader seals and coins show the crescent and the star (or blazing Sun) on either side of the ruler's head (as in the Sassanid tradition), e.g. [[Bohemond III of Antioch]], [[Richard I of England]], [[Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse]].<ref>Bohemond III of Antioch (r. 1163–1201) "Obv. Helmeted head of king in chain-maille armor, crescent and star to sides" ([http://www.ancientresource.com/lots/medieval_crusades/crusaders_coins.html ancientresource.com])</ref> At the same time, the star in crescent is found on the obverse of Crusader coins, e.g. in coins of the [[County of Tripoli]] minted under [[Raymond II, Count of Tripoli|Raymond II]] or [[Raymond III, Count of Tripoli|III]] c. 1140s–1160s show an "eight-rayed star with pellets above crescent".<ref>"Billon denier, struck c. late 1140s{{snd}}1164. + RA[M]VNDVS COMS, cross pattée, pellet in 1st and 2nd quarters / CIVI[TAS T]RIPOLIS, eight-rayed star with pellets above crescent. ref: CCS 6–8; Metcalf 509 ([http://www.ancientresource.com/lots/medieval_crusades/crusaders_coins.html ancientresource.com]).</ref> The star and crescent combination appears in [[attributed arms]] from the early 14th century, possibly in a coat of arms of c. 1330, possibly attributed to [[John Chrysostom]],<ref>"The earliest church in the Morea to include a saint holding a shield marked by the crescent and star may be St. John Chrysostom, which has been dated on the basis of style to ca. 1300 [...]" [[Angeliki Laiou|Angeliki E. Laiou]], [[Roy P. Mottahedeh]], ''The Crusades From the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World'', Dumbarton Oaks, 2001, p 278</ref> and in the ''[[Wernigeroder Wappenbuch]]'' (late 15th century) attributed to one of the [[three Magi]], named "Balthasar of [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]]".<ref>[[:File:Wernigeroder Wappenbuch 021.jpg|p. 21]]; adopted by [[Virgil Solis]] in his ''[[Wappenbüchlein]]'' (1555)</ref> Crescents (without the star) increase in popularity in early modern heraldry in Europe. ''[[Siebmachers Wappenbuch]]'' (1605) records 48 coats of arms of German families which include one or several crescents.<ref>Sara L. Uckelman, [http://www.ellipsis.cx/~liana/heraldry/siebmacher/siebmacherordinary.html An Ordinary of Siebmacher's Wappenbuch (ellipsis.cx)] (2014)</ref> A star and crescent symbolizing [[Croatia]] was commonly found on 13th-century ''[[banovac]]'' coins in the [[Kingdom of Slavonia (medieval)|Kingdom of Slavonia]], with a [[two-barred cross]] symbolizing the [[Kingdom of Hungary]].<ref>{{cite book | url = https://www.hnb.hr/-/povijest-novca-u-hrvatskoj | language = hr | title = Povijest novca u Hrvatskoj, 1527. − 1941. | trans-title = History of money in Croatia, 1527 − 1941 | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-953-8013-03-4 | first = Mira | last = Kolar-Dimitrijević | format = PDF | access-date = 2022-04-16 | page = 13}}</ref> [[St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna|St. Stephen's Cathedral]] in Vienna used to have at the top of its highest tower a golden crescent with a star; it came to be seen as a symbol of Islam and the Ottoman enemy, which is why it was replaced with a cross in 1686.<ref name="Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften k088">{{cite web | title=Wien 1, Stephansdom, Mondschein | website=Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften | url=https://www.oeaw.ac.at/tuerkengedaechtnis/denkmaeler/ort/stephansdom-mondschein | language=de | access-date=2024-03-02}}</ref> In the late 16th century, the [[Korenić-Neorić Armorial]] shows a white star and crescent on a red field as the coat of arms of "[[Illyrism|Illyria]]". The star and crescent combination remains rare prior to its adoption by the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 18th century.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} <gallery class="center" heights="150" perrow="4"> File:Seal of Richard I of England.webp|Great Seal of [[Richard I of England]] (1198)<ref>Richard is depicted as seated between a crescent and a "Sun full radiant" in his second Great Seal of 1198. English heraldic tradition of the early modern period associates the star and crescent design with Richard, with his victory over [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus]] in 1192, and with the arms of [[Portsmouth]] (Francis Wise ''A Letter to Dr Mead Concerning Some Antiquities in Berkshire'', 1738, [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFAGAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA18 p. 18]). Heraldic tradition also attributes a star-and-crescent [[:File:Complete Guide to Heraldry Fig680.png|badge]] to Richard (Charles Fox-Davies, ''A Complete Guide to Heraldry'', 1909, p. 468).</ref> File:Raimond6Toulouse.jpg|Equestrian seal of [[Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse]] with a star and a crescent (13th century) File:Battle of Mohi 1241.PNG|The crescent flag ascribed to the [[Hungarians]] against the Mongol [[Golden Horde]] in the [[Battle of Mohi]], 1241. File:BattleOfHoms1299.JPG|[[Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar]] (Battle of Homs) of 1299 (14th-century [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]]) File:Coat of arms of Cumania.svg|Historical coat of arms of [[Kunság]], where [[Cumans]] in Hungary settled, 1279. File:Frater Robert seal templar.png|Templar seal of the 13th century, probably of the preceptor of the commanderies at Coudrie and Biais ([[Duchy of Brittany|Brittany]]).<ref>Found in the 19th century at the site of the Biais commandery, in Saint-Père-en-Retz, Loire-Atlantique, France, now in the Musée Dobré in Nantes, inv. no. 303. Philippe Josserand, "Les Templiers en Bretagne au Moyen Âge : mythes et réalités", ''Annales de Bretagne et des Pays de l'Ouest'' 119.4 (2012), 7–33 (p.24).</ref> File:Leliwa seal XIVw.jpg|Polish coats of arms, called [[Leliwa coat of arms|Leliwa]] (1334 seal) File:Wernigeroder Wappenbuch 021.jpg|Coats of arms of the [[Three Magi]], with "Baltasar of Tarsus" being attributed a star and crescent ''increscent'' in a blue field, ''[[Wernigerode Armorial]]'' (c. 1490) File:Wappenbild freigrafen 1448.jpg|Coat of arms of John [[Freigraf]] of "Lesser Egypt" (i.e. [[Romani people in Germany|Romani/gypsy]]),<ref>In 15th-century Europe, it was widely assumed that the gypsies were Egyptians (hence the name ''[[Names of the Romani people#Gypsy and gipsy|gypsies]]''), and several gypsy leaders are known to have styled themselves as "counts of lesser Egypt". Wilhelm Ferdinand Bischoff, ''Deutsch-Zigeunerisches Wörterbuch'' (1827), [https://archive.org/details/deutschzigeuner00biscgoog/page/n32 p.14]</ref> 18th-century drawing of a 1498 coat of arms in [[Pforzheim]] church. File:Krupac – Stećci (03).jpg|Depictions of stars with crescents are a common motif on the [[stećak]] 12th to 16th century tombstones of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages|medieval Bosnia]] File:Coat of arms of the legitimate Kingdom of Bosnia.png|1668 representation by [[Joan Blaeu]] of Coat of arms of the [[Kingdom of Bosnia]] from 1595 [[Korenić-Neorić Armorial]] File:Coa Croatia Country Illyria History.svg|The coat of arms of "Illyria" from the [[Korenić-Neorić Armorial]] (1590s) File:Banner of Cumania at Ferdinand II's coronation (1618).svg|Banner of [[Cumania]], used at the coronation of Ferdinand II of Hungary in 1618 and assigned to Gáspár (Caspar) Illésházy. File:Jelacic-Gulden 1848 reverse.jpg|Star and crescent on the obverse of the Jelacic-Gulden of the [[Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)|Kingdom of Croatia]] (1848)<!--apparently related to the "Illyrian" emblem; added here pending development on modern usage.--> File:COA-family-sv-Slatte.png|Coat of arms of the [[List of Swedish noble families|noble family]] Slatte (1625–1699) in Sweden. File:COA family sv fi Finckenberg.png|Coat of arms of the [[List of Swedish noble families|noble family]] Finckenberg (1627–1809) in Sweden. File:COA-family-sv-Boose.png|Coat of arms of the [[List of Swedish noble families|noble family]] Boose (1642–1727) in Sweden. File:Flag of the Zaporizhian Sich.svg|Banner of the [[Zaporizhian Sich]] ([[Cossacks]] of Ukraine) before 1775. File:Coa Transylvania Country History v3.svg|[[Flag and coat of arms of Transylvania|Coat of arms of Transylvania]] </gallery> ====Muslim usage==== {{further information|Crescent#Middle ages}} While the [[crescent]] on its own is depicted as an emblem used on Islamic war flags from the medieval period, at least from the 13th century although it does not seem to have been in frequent use until the 14th or 15th century,<ref>Mohd Elfie Nieshaem Juferi, {{cite web|title=What Is The Significance Of The Crescent Moon In Islam? |url=https://www.bismikaallahuma.org/polemical-rebuttals/crescent-moon-in-islam/|website=bismikaallahuma.org|date=12 October 2005 |access-date=September 21, 2017}}</ref><ref>Pamela Berger, ''The Crescent on the Temple: The Dome of the Rock as Image of the Ancient Jewish Sanctuary'' (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=JekyAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 p. 164f]</ref> the star and crescent in an Islamic context is more rare in the medieval period, but may occasionally be found in depictions of flags from the 14th century onward.<!-- how rare? we basically just have this single ms. image of BNF Nouvelle acquisition française 886, fol. 31v--> Some [[Mughal Empire|Mughal era]] (17th century) round shields were decorated with a crescent or star and crescent. <gallery mode="packed" heights="180px"> File:Hayton BNF886 9v.jpg|Depiction of a star and crescent flag on the [[Saracen]] side in the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] (manuscript illustration of the ''[[Hayton of Corycus#History of the Tartars|History of the Tatars]]'', Catalan workshop, early 14th century). File:The Surrender of Kandahar.jpg|A miniature painting from a ''[[Padshahnama]]'' manuscript (c. 1640), depicting [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Shah Jahan]] as bearing a shield with a star and crescent decoration. File:Prince Awrangzeb (Aurangzeb) facing a maddened elephant named Sudhakar (7 June 1633).jpg|A painting from a ''[[Padshahnama]]'' manuscript (1633) depicts the scene of [[Aurangzeb]] facing the maddened [[war elephant]] Sudhakar. [[Sowar]]'s shield is decorated with a star and crescent. File:Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg|Ottoman [[sipahi]]s in battle, holding the crescent banner (by [[Józef Brandt]]) Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Ha'il.svg|Flag of the [[Emirate of Jabal Shammar]] ([[Ha'il]] in today's [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]]) from 1835 to 1921 File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Khedive_of_Egypt.svg|Coat of arms of [[Khedivate of Egypt]] (1867–1914) File:Flag_of_Egypt_(1922–1958).svg|Flag of the [[Kingdom of Egypt]] (1922–1953) and co-official flag of the [[Republic of Egypt (1953–1958)|Republic of Egypt]] (1953–1958) File:Flag_of_Egypt_(1953–1958).svg|Flag of the [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|Free Officers Movement]] (1949–1953) and co-official flag of the [[Republic of Egypt (1953–1958)|Republic of Egypt]] (1953–1958) File:Flag of Aceh Sultanate.svg|Flag of the [[Sultanate of Aceh]] (1496–1903) </gallery> ====Use in the Ottoman Empire==== {{further information|Flags of the Ottoman Empire}} [[File:TurkischeHauptArmeeHochenleitterBGHistory.jpg|thumb|The [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Army]] approaching the city of [[Sofia]] in 1788.]] {{multiple image | width = 220 | image1 = Flag of the Ottoman Empire (1844–1922).svg | image2 = Flag of the Ottoman Empire (eight pointed star).svg | direction = vertical | footer = Star-and-crescent flags of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The first was used as the naval ensign and state symbol from the late 18th century, and as the official Ottoman national flag from 1844 to 1922; the second, is an [[Octagram|eight-pointed]] variant of the first, used after 1844. }} The adoption of star and crescent as the Ottoman state symbol started during the reign of [[Mustafa III]] (1757–1774) and its use became well-established during the periods of [[Abdul Hamid I]] (1774–1789) and [[Selim III]] (1789–1807).<ref name="islamencyclopedia">{{cite book |title=İslâm Ansiklopedisi |url=http://www.islamansiklopedisi.info/dia/ayrmetin.php?idno=040298 |location=Istanbul |publisher=Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı |page=298 |volume=4 |date=1991 |language=tr}}</ref> A decree (''{{lang|tr|buyruldu}}'') from 1793 states that the ships in the [[Ottoman navy]] fly that flag, and various other documents from earlier and later years mention its use.<ref name="islamencyclopedia" /> The ultimate source of the emblem is unclear. It is mostly derived from the star-and-crescent symbol used by the city of [[Constantinople]] in antiquity, possibly by association with the crescent design (without the star) used in Turkish flags since before 1453.<ref>"It seems possible, though not certain, that after the conquest Mehmed took over the crescent ''and'' star as an emblem of sovereignty from the Byzantines. The half-moon alone on a blood red flag, allegedly conferred on the Janissaries by Emir Orhan, was much older, as is demonstrated by numerous references to it dating from before 1453. But since these flags lack the star, which along with the half-moon is to be found on Sassanid and Byzantine municipal coins, it may be regarded as an innovation of Mehmed. It seems certain that in the interior of Asia tribes of Turkish nomads had been using the half-moon alone as an emblem for some time past, but it is equally certain that crescent and star ''together'' are attested only for a much later period. There is good reason to believe that old Turkish and Byzantine traditions were combined in the emblem of Ottoman and, much later, present-day Republican Turkish sovereignty." Franz Babinger (William C. Hickman Ed., Ralph Manheim Trans.), ''Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time'', Princeton University Press, 1992, p 108</ref> With the [[Tanzimat]] reforms in the 19th century, flags were redesigned in the style of the European armies of the day. The flag of the Ottoman Navy was made red, as red was to be the flag of secular institutions and green of religious ones. As the reforms abolished all the various flags (standards) of the Ottoman [[pashalik]]s, [[bey]]liks and [[emirate]]s, a single new Ottoman national flag was designed to replace them. The result was the red flag with the white crescent moon and star, which is the precursor to the modern [[flag of Turkey]]. A plain red flag was introduced as the [[civil ensign]] for all Ottoman subjects. The white crescent with an eight-pointed star on a red field is depicted as the flag of a "Turkish Man of War" in Colton's ''Delineation of Flags of All Nations'' (1862). Steenbergen's ''{{lang|nl|Vlaggen van alle Natiën}}'' of the same year shows a six-pointed star. A plate in ''Webster's Unabridged'' of 1882 shows the flag with an eight-pointed star labelled "Turkey, Man of war". The five-pointed star seems to have been present alongside these variants from at least 1857. In addition to Ottoman imperial insignia, symbols appear on the flag of [[Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina#Western Herzegovina 1760 flag|Bosnia Eyalet]] (1580–1867) and [[Bosnia Vilayet]] (1867–1908), as well as the [[Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina#Bosnian Revolt of 1830s flag|flag of 1831 Bosnian revolt]], while the symbols appeared on some representations of [[Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina#Historic arms|medieval Bosnian coat of arms]] too. In the late 19th century, "Star and Crescent" came to be used as a metaphor for Ottoman rule in British literature.<ref>e.g. A. Locher, [[iarchive:withstarandcres01lochgoog|"With Star and Crescent: A Full and Authentic Account of a Recent Journey with a Caravan from Bombay to Constantinople"; Andrew Haggard, "Under Crescent and Star" (1895).]]</ref> The increasingly ubiquitous fashion of using the star and crescent symbol in the ornamentation of Ottoman mosques and minarets led to a gradual association of the symbol with Islam in general in western [[Orientalism]].<ref>"Mosque and minaret are surmounted by crescents; the air glowing over the Golden Horn is, as it were, full of moons." [[Hezekiah Butterworth]], ''Zigzag journeys in the Orient'' vol. 3 (1882), p. 481.</ref> The "Red Crescent" emblem was used by volunteers of the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] (ICRC) as early as 1877 during the [[Russo-Turkish War]]; it was officially adopted in 1929. After the foundation of the [[Republic of Turkey]] in 1923, the new Turkish state maintained the last flag of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Proportional standardisations were introduced in the Turkish Flag Law ({{langx|tr|Türk Bayrağı Kanunu}}) of May 29, 1936. Besides the most prominent example of [[Turkey]] (see [[Flag of Turkey]]), a number of other Ottoman successor states adopted the design during the 20th century, including the [[Emirate of Cyrenaica]] and the [[Kingdom of Libya]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], and the proposed [[Arab Islamic Republic]].
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