Editing Storm chasing (section)

==Equipment==
Storm chasers vary with regards to the amount of equipment used, some prefer a minimalist approach; for example, where only basic photographic equipment is taken on a chase, while others use everything from satellite-based tracking systems and live data feeds to vehicle-mounted [[weather station]]s and hail guards.

===Historic===
[[File:Top of NSSL chase vehicle.jpg|thumb|Top of a [[National Severe Storms Laboratory|NSSL]] chase vehicle showing air conditioning unit, compass, and [[Global Positioning System]].]]

Historically, storm chasing relied on either in-field analysis or in some cases nowcasts from trained observers and forecasters. The first in-field technology consisted of radio gear for communication. Much of this equipment could also be adapted to receive [[radiofax]] data which was useful for receiving basic observational and analysis data. The primary users of such technology were university or government research groups who often had larger budgets than individual chasers.

Radio scanners were also heavily used to listen in on [[emergency service]]s and storm spotters so as to determine where the most active or dangerous weather was located. A number of chasers were also [[Amateur radio operator|radio amateurs]], and used mobile (or portable) [[amateur radio]] to communicate directly with spotters and other chasers, allowing them to keep abreast of what they could not themselves see.

It was not until the mid- to late 1980s that the evolution of the [[laptop]] computer would begin to revolutionize storm chasing. Early on, some chasers carried [[acoustic coupler]]s to download batches of raw surface and upper air data from payphones. The technology was too slow for graphical imagery such as [[Weather radar|radar]] and [[Weather satellite|satellite]] data; and during the first years this wasn't available on any connection over telephone lines, anyway. Some raw data could be downloaded and plotted by software, such as [[surface weather observation]]s using ''WeatherGraphix''<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.weathergraphics.com/dl/|title=Software Download Center – Weather Graphics|website=weathergraphics.com|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=7 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207061415/http://www.weathergraphics.com/dl/|url-status=live}}</ref> (predecessor to ''Digital Atmosphere'')<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.weathergraphics.com/da/|title=Digital Atmosphere – Weather Graphics|website=weathergraphics.com|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=6 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206085703/http://www.weathergraphics.com/da/|url-status=live}}</ref> and similar software or for upper air soundings using ''SHARP'',<ref name="auto"/> ''RAOB'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://raob.com/|title=RAOB: The Universal RAwinsonde OBservation program|website=raob.com|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=17 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217002659/http://www.raob.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> <!-- http://www.weathergraphics.com/raob/ --> and similar software.

Most meteorological data was acquired all at once early in the morning, and the rest of day's chasing was based on analysis and forecast gleaned from this; as well as on visual clues that presented themselves in the field throughout the day. Plotted [[weather map]]s were often analyzed by hand for manual diagnosis of meteorological patterns. Occasionally chasers would make stops at rural airstrips or NWS offices for an update on weather conditions. [[NOAA Weather Radio]] (NWR) could provide information in the vehicle, without stopping, such as [[Severe weather terminology (United States)|weather watches and warning]]s, surface weather conditions, [[Storm Prediction Center#Convective outlooks|convective outlook]]s, and NWS radar summaries. Nowadays, storm chasers may use high-speed Internet access available in any library, even in small towns in the US. This data is available throughout the day, but one must find and stop at a location offering Internet access.

With the development of the mobile computers, the first computer mapping software became feasible, at about the same time as the popular adoption of the [[VHS]] [[camcorder]] began a rapid growth phase. Prior to the mid to late 1980s most motion picture equipment consisted of [[8 mm film]] cameras. While the quality of the first VHS consumer cameras was quite poor (and the size somewhat cumbersome) when compared to traditional film formats, the amount of [[Videotape|video]] which could be shot with a minimal amount of resources was much greater than any [[Film stock|film format]] at the time.

In the 1980s and 1990s The Weather Channel (TWC) and ''[[A.M. Weather]]'' were popular with chasers, in the morning preceding a chase for the latter and both before and during a chase for the former. Commercial radio sometimes also provides weather and damage information. The 1990s brought technological leaps and bounds. With the swift development of [[Solid-state (electronics)|solid state]] technology, television sets for example could be installed with ease in most vehicles allowing storm chasers to actively view local TV stations. Mobile phones became popular making group coordination easier when traditional radio communications methods were not ideal or for those possessing radios. The development of the [[World Wide Web]] (WWW) in 1993 hastened adoption of the Internet and led to [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] access to some of the first university weather sites.

The mid-1990s marked the development of smaller more efficient marine radars. While such marine radars are illegal if used in land-mobile situations, a number of chasers were quick to adopt them in an effort to have mobile radar. These radars have been found to interfere with research radars, such as the [[Doppler on Wheels]] (DOW) utilized in field projects. The first personal [[lightning detection]] and mapping devices also became available<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.boltek.com/|title=Boltek &#124; Lightning Detection Systems|website=boltek.com|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=30 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730103254/https://www.boltek.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> and the first online radar data was offered by private corporations or, at first with delays, with free services. A popular data vendor by the end of the 1990s was [[WeatherTAP]].

===Current===
[[File:Tornado intercept vehicle.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|An armored "[[Tornado Intercept Vehicle]]" used to film inside a tornado with an [[IMAX]] camera, and featured in the [[Discovery Channel]] series, [[Storm Chasers (TV series)|''Storm Chasers'']].]]
[[File:SRV Dominator crop.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|The [[SRV Dominator]], an armored tornado intercept vehicle featured in the [[Discovery Channel]] series, [[Storm Chasers (TV series)|''Storm Chasers'']].]]

Chasers used paper [[Road map|maps]] for navigation and some of those now using GPS still use these as a backup or for strategizing with other chasers. Foldable state maps can be used but are cumbersome due to the multitude of states needed and only show major roads. National atlases allow more detail and all states are contained in a single book, with [[American Automobile Association|AAA]] favored and [[Rand McNally]] followed by [[Michelin Guide|Michelin]] also used. The preferred atlases due to great detail in rural areas are the "''Roads of...''" series originally by Shearer Publishing, which first included Texas but expanded to other states such as Oklahoma and Colorado. Covering every state of the union are the [[DeLorme]] "Atlas and Gazetteer" series. DeLorme also produced early GPS receivers that connected to laptops and for years was one of two major mapping software creators. ''DeLorme Street Atlas USA'' or ''[[Microsoft Streets & Trips]]'' were used by most chasers until their discontinuations in 2013. Chasers now use [[Google Maps]], [[Waze]], and/or [[Apple Maps]] or other [[web mapping]] on mobile devices as no comparably robust mapping software emerged although [[operating system]]s later implemented the apps [[Windows Maps]] and Apple Maps. To ensure mapping availability without an active internet connection, these solutions all require downloading maps locally ahead of time. GPS receivers may still be used with other software, such as for displaying radar data.

A major turning point was the advent of civilian [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] in 1996, which was followed by additional [[satellite navigation]] systems in ensuing decades and by refinements of GPS. At first, GPS units were very costly and only offered basic functions, but that would soon change. Towards the late 1990s the Internet was awash in weather data and free weather software, the first true cellular Internet modems for consumer use also emerged providing chasers access to data in the field without having to rely on a nowcaster. The NWS also released the first free, up-to-date [[NEXRAD]] Level 3 radar data. In conjunction with all of this, GPS units now had the ability to connect with computers, granting greater ease when navigating.

2001 marked the next great technological leap for storm chasers as the first [[Wi-Fi]] units began to emerge offering wireless broadband service in many cases for free. Some places (restaurants, motels, libraries, etc.) were known to reliably offer wireless access and [[wardriving]] located other availabilities. In 2002 the first [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]-based package to combine GPS positioning and [[Weather radar|Doppler weather radar]] appeared called SWIFT WX.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.weatherdefender.com/|title=Weather Defender – Weather software, live weather radar for your desktop.|website=weatherdefender.com|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802210105/http://www.weatherdefender.com/|url-status=usurped}}</ref> SWIFT WX allowed storm chasers to seamlessly position themselves accurately relative to tornadic storms.

In 2004 two more storm chaser tools emerged. The first, WxWorx, was a new [[XM Satellite Radio]] based system<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wxworx.com/|title=WxWorx &#124; Pilot & Marine Weather &#124; Storm Chasers &#124; Huntsville, AL|website=WxWorx Store|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=3 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190803075358/https://www.wxworx.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> utilizing a special receiver and [[Baron Services]] weather software. Unlike preexisting cellular based services there was no risk of dead spots, and that meant that even in the most remote areas storm chasers still had a live data feed. The second tool was a new piece of software called GRLevel3.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.grlevelx.com/|title=GRLevelX Main Page|website=grlevelx.com|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=9 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309154059/http://www.grlevelx.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[GRLevelX|GRLevel3]] utilized both free and subscription based raw radar files, displaying the data in a true [[Vector graphics|vector]] format with [[Geographic information system|GIS]] layering abilities. Since 2006 a growing number of chasers are using [[Spotter Network]] (SN), which uses GPS data to plot real time position of participating spotters and chasers, and allows observers to report significant weather as well as GIS layering for navigation maps, weather products, and the like.

The most common chaser communications device is the [[Mobile phone|cellular phone]]. These are used for both voice and data connections. External antennas and amplifiers may be used to boost signal transception. It is not uncommon that chasers travel in small groups of cars, and they may use [[Citizens Band radio|CB radio]] (declining in use) or inexpensive [[General Mobile Radio Service|GMRS]] / [[Family Radio Service|FRS]] hand-held [[transceiver]]s for inter-vehicle communication. More commonly, many chasers are also ham radio operators and use the [[2-meter band|2 meters]] [[Very high frequency|VHF]] and, less often, [[70-centimeter band|70 cm]] [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] bands to communicate between vehicles or with [[Skywarn]] / [[Canwarn]] spotter networks. [[Scanner (radio)|Scanners]] are often used to monitor spotter, sometimes public safety communications, and can double as [[weather radio]]s. Since the mid-2000s [[social networking services]] may also be used, with [[Twitter]] most used for ongoing events, [[Facebook]] for sharing images and discussing chase reports, [[Discord]] for the same and with forecast conversations occurring on both platforms, with [[YouTube]] and sometimes [[Vimeo]] or [[TikTok]] for sharing videos, and [[Instagram]] also used to share imagery. Social networking services largely (but not completely) replace forums and email lists, which complemented and eventually supplanted ''Stormtrack'' magazine, for conversing about and sharing images of storms.

In-field environmental data is still popular among some storm chasers, especially [[temperature]], moisture, and [[wind speed]] and [[Wind direction|direction]] data. Many choose to mount weather stations atop their vehicles. Even professionally installed and scientific grade [[Meteorological instrumentation|instrument]] systems are subject to various problems, however, so such casually collected data must be considered tenuously.<ref name="Waugh">{{cite journal |last = Waugh  |first = Sean M.  |title = The "U-Tube": An Improved Aspirated Temperature System for Mobile Meteorological Observations, Especially in Severe Weather  |journal = J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol.  |volume = 38  |issue = 9  |pages = 1477–1489  |date = 2021  |doi = 10.1175/JTECH-D-21-0008.1 |bibcode = 2021JAtOT..38.1477W |hdl = 11244/24679 |s2cid = 134944456 |doi-access = free  |hdl-access = free  }}</ref> Others use handheld [[anemometer]]s. Rulers or baseballs may be brought along for measuring hail and for showing as a comparison object. Vehicle mounted cameras, such as on the roof or more commonly on the dash, provide continuous visual recording capability.

Chasers heavily utilized still [[photography]] since the beginning. [[Videography]] gained prominence by the 1990s into the early 2000s but a resurgence of photography occurred with the advent of affordable and versatile [[Digital single-lens reflex camera|digital SLR]] (DSLR) [[Still camera|cameras]]. Prior to this, [[35mm format|35 mm]] [[Single-lens reflex camera|SLR]] [[Photographic film|print]] and [[Reversal film|slide]] [[film format]]s were mostly used, along with some [[Medium format (film)|medium format]] cameras. In the late 2000s, mobile phone [[3G]] data networks became fast enough to allow [[live streaming]] video from chasers using webcams. This live imagery is frequently used by the media, as well as NWS meteorologists, emergency managers, and the general public for direct ground truth information, and it promotes video sales opportunities for chasers. Also by this time, camcorders using [[memory card]]s to record video began to be adopted. [[DV (video format)|Digital video]] had been around for years but was recorded on [[Magnetic tape|tape]], whereas [[Solid-state storage|solid-state]] is [[random access]] rather than [[sequential access]] (linear) and has no moving parts. Late in the 2000s [[High-definition video|HD video]] began to overtake [[Standard-definition television|SD]] (which had been [[NTSC]] in North America) in usage as prices came down and performance increased (initially there were low-light and sporadic aliasing problems due to chip and sensor limitations). By the mid-2010s [[4K resolution|4K]] cameras were increasingly in use. [[Tripod (photography)|Tripods]] are used by those seeking crisp professional photo and video imagery and also enable chasers to tend to other activities. Other accessories include cable/remote shutter releases, lightning triggers, and lens filters. Windshield mounted cameras or dome enclosed cameras atop vehicle roofs may also be used, and a few chasers use [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAVs]] ("drones").

Late in the 2000s [[smartphone]]s increased in usage, with radar viewing applications frequently used. Particularly, ''RadarScope''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.basevelocity.com/ |title=Base Velocity |access-date=15 December 2012 |archive-date=19 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119041949/http://www.basevelocity.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> on the [[iOS]] and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms is favored. ''Pkyl3''<ref name="Pykl3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pykl3radar.com/|title=PYKL3 Radar|website=pykl3radar.com|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=22 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122121157/http://www.pykl3radar.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> was a dominant early choice on Android devices but which discontinued development in August 2018.<ref name="Pykl3"/> ''RadarOmega''<ref name="RadarOmega">{{cite web|url=https://www.radaromega.com/ }}</ref> became a commonly used app in the 2020s. Other apps may be used as are browsers for viewing meteorological data and accessing social networking services. Some handsets can be used as [[Hotspot (Wi-Fi)|WiFi hotspots]] and wireless cards may also be used to avoid committing a handset to [[tethering]] or operating as a hotspot. Some hotspots operate as [[mobile broadband]] [[Mobile virtual network operator|MNVO]] devices using any radio spectrum that is both available and is in contract with a service provider. Such devices may expand mobile data range beyond a single carrier's service area and typically can work on month-to-month contracts. Adoption of [[tablet computer]]s expanded by the early 2010s. [[LTE (telecommunication)|4G LTE]] has been adopted when available and can be especially useful for uploading HD video. A gradual uptick of those selecting [[mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera]]s (MILCs) began in the mid-2010s. Usage of DSLR for video capture, called HDSLR, is common, although HD camcorders remain popular due to their greater functionality (many chasers still shoot both).

Chasers also carry common travel articles and vehicle maintenance items, and sometimes [[first aid kit]]s. Full sized [[spare tire]]s are strongly preferable to "donut" emergency replacement tires. [[Power inverter]]s (often with [[Surge protector|surged protected]] [[power strips]]) power devices that require [[Alternating current|AC]] (indoor/wall outlet) power, although some devices may be powered directly with [[Direct current|DC]] (battery power) from the vehicle electric system. Water repellent products, such as [[Rain-X]] or Aquapel, are frequently applied to windshields to dispel water when driving as well as mud and small detritus, which boosts visibility and image clarity on photographs and videos shot through glass (which is particularly problematic if [[autofocus]] is on). [[Binoculars]] and sunglasses are commonly employed.